Metabolism can be defined as the sum total of processes occurring in a living organism. Heat is produced during all of these processes, therefore the metabolic rate is the rate of heat production. All biological processes ultimately use oxidation, so the rate of oxygen consumption can theoretically be used to estimate metabolic rate.
Transduction is the conversion of energy from one form to another. There are 3 major stages of transduction in the biosphere: photosynthesis, cell respiration (energy given up, production of ATP), and cell work. Energy involved in cell work can be mechanical, synthetic, chemical, asmotic or electrical. Contraction is the change of chemical energy to mechanical energy.
Metabolism as a rate of heat production can be measured. All cellular events result in the production of heat. A calorie is the amount of heat required to raise 1g of water 1 degree Celsius. Direct calorimetry is the direct measurement of heat, and is very difficult to determine. Indirect calorimetry involves the measurement of oxygen consumption, or the measurement of carbon and nitrogen content of excreted materials to determine metabolic rate.
During exercise, indirect calorimetry devices must measure external work. Oxygen is not used immediately for energy (since immediate energy sources and glycogen provide the initial sources of energy and are nonoxidative sources). Also, lactic acid is produced during vigorous exercise and the body buffers this buildup with bicarbonate-carbonic acid system. Therefore R does not = RQ. During and after exercise, urine production is inhibited and nitrogen is also lost in sweat, so the release of nitrogen is difficult to measure. Knowing all these factors, one can account for them and still get an estimate of metabolic rate.
EPOC is Excessive Postexercise Oxygen Consumption. This refers to the persistence of metabolic response even after exercise stops.
Efficiency is the fraction of energy liberated as external work, expressed as a percentage.
Steady-state exercise occurs when oxygen consumption (VO2) is relatively constant. This is directly proportional to the submaximal work load.
When testing on a treadmill, the grade is added to create external work (lifting the body up the incline).
Wednesday, April 2, 2008
All About Enzymes!
Enzymes are molecules that catalyze, or increase, the rates of chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy of the reaction. Enzymes are usually large molecules with 1 site for a substrate (reactant) to attach. This is known as the active site. When a substrate is attached, the two together are known as the enzyme-substrate complex. The products are released after the reaction occurs.
Modulators attach at the binding site of enzymes and affect the catalytic rate of the enzymes. Stimulators increase the rate while inhibitors decrease it. ATP, for example, is an inhibitor, while ADP and Pi are stimulators.
Alloterism describes the effect of modulators, since they can change the shape of parts on the enzyme. A multivalent enzyme is one which can be affected by several modulators.
Maximum velocity (Vmax) is a descriptive parameter of enzynmes. The Michaelis-Menten constant (Km) describes the interaction between a substrate and an enzyme. It occurs when the concentration of the substrate is 1/2 Vmax.
At rest, normally high levels of ATP and CP inhibit energy metabolism. When exercise starts, ATP breaks down and the existence of ADP and Pi stimulate energy metabolism.
Modulators attach at the binding site of enzymes and affect the catalytic rate of the enzymes. Stimulators increase the rate while inhibitors decrease it. ATP, for example, is an inhibitor, while ADP and Pi are stimulators.
Alloterism describes the effect of modulators, since they can change the shape of parts on the enzyme. A multivalent enzyme is one which can be affected by several modulators.
Maximum velocity (Vmax) is a descriptive parameter of enzynmes. The Michaelis-Menten constant (Km) describes the interaction between a substrate and an enzyme. It occurs when the concentration of the substrate is 1/2 Vmax.
At rest, normally high levels of ATP and CP inhibit energy metabolism. When exercise starts, ATP breaks down and the existence of ADP and Pi stimulate energy metabolism.
Oxidative Energy Sources
Oxidative sources provide far more available energy than nonoxidative or immediate energy sources. The potential sources of oxidative energy include sugar, carbs, fats and amino acids. Through this process, far more energy is liberated from a glucose molecule than other processes, since the process of glucose catabolism is carried much farther.
Glucose + O2 ----oxidative metabolism---->36ATP + CO2 + H2O
Fats and amino acids can only be catabolized by oxidative metabolism. Fat metabolism results in the release of far more energy:
Palmate + O2 ----OM----> 129ATP + CO2 + H20
In order to break down amino acids for energy, the nitrogen residue must first be removed- either through transamination (transfer) or oxidativer deamination in the liver (removal).
Glucose + O2 ----oxidative metabolism---->36ATP + CO2 + H2O
Fats and amino acids can only be catabolized by oxidative metabolism. Fat metabolism results in the release of far more energy:
Palmate + O2 ----OM----> 129ATP + CO2 + H20
In order to break down amino acids for energy, the nitrogen residue must first be removed- either through transamination (transfer) or oxidativer deamination in the liver (removal).
Nonoxidative (Glycolytic) Energy Sources
Glucose is a simple sugar that can be broken down for energy. Many glucose subunits can combine and be stored in the body as glycogen. Our muscles are densely packed with enzymes for this breakdown, so it can happen very rapidly.
Glucose ----glycolysis----> 2ATP + 2 Lactate
Glycogen is the main source of energy since free glucose supply is low in skeletal muscle, and is used for muscle contraction lasting more than a few seconds. Like the immediate energy sources, glucose is water-soluble and exists in the cytoplasm of the cell. There is more energy available from glucose/glycogen than from the immediate energy sources, but much less than oxidative energy sources. Even though lactate is produced as a byproduct, the formation and removal of this acid are in balance.
Glucose ----glycolysis----> 2ATP + 2 Lactate
Glycogen is the main source of energy since free glucose supply is low in skeletal muscle, and is used for muscle contraction lasting more than a few seconds. Like the immediate energy sources, glucose is water-soluble and exists in the cytoplasm of the cell. There is more energy available from glucose/glycogen than from the immediate energy sources, but much less than oxidative energy sources. Even though lactate is produced as a byproduct, the formation and removal of this acid are in balance.
Immediate Energy Sources
There are 3 components of immediate energy sources in muscle: ATP, Creatine Phosphate, and Myokinase. All three are water-soluble, so they reside in the aqueous part of the cell near the myosin and actin (contractile proteins of muscle).
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is degraded by enzymes called ATPases, and the process usually involves combining with water; therefore, is referred to as hydrolysis. The chemical products of hydrolysis are ADP and Pi, where Pi is an inorganic phosphate. The standard free energy of ATP is 11 kcal/mol.
Creatine phosphate (CP) is 5-6x more abundant in resting muscle than ATP. It serves as a reserve of phosphate energy to regenerate ATP by rephosphorylising ADP.
CP + ADP ----creatine kinase----> ATP + C
The resulting Creatine is then rephosphorylated with mitochondrial creatine kinase which accesses mitochondrial ATP.
The enzyme adenylate kinase, also known as myokinase, can generate 1 ATP and 1 AMP from 2ADPs.
ATP and CP together are known as phosphagen. Exisiting ATP can't sustain maximal contraction for more than 2 seconds; and even with the assistance of CP and myokinase, other energy sources are needed to kick in if contraction lasts over 5-15 seconds.
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is degraded by enzymes called ATPases, and the process usually involves combining with water; therefore, is referred to as hydrolysis. The chemical products of hydrolysis are ADP and Pi, where Pi is an inorganic phosphate. The standard free energy of ATP is 11 kcal/mol.
Creatine phosphate (CP) is 5-6x more abundant in resting muscle than ATP. It serves as a reserve of phosphate energy to regenerate ATP by rephosphorylising ADP.
CP + ADP ----creatine kinase----> ATP + C
The resulting Creatine is then rephosphorylated with mitochondrial creatine kinase which accesses mitochondrial ATP.
The enzyme adenylate kinase, also known as myokinase, can generate 1 ATP and 1 AMP from 2ADPs.
ATP and CP together are known as phosphagen. Exisiting ATP can't sustain maximal contraction for more than 2 seconds; and even with the assistance of CP and myokinase, other energy sources are needed to kick in if contraction lasts over 5-15 seconds.
Monday, March 31, 2008
Electrical Activity of the Heart and ECGs
At rest, the heart muscle is polarized. This means that the cells are negatively charged on the inside and positively charged on the outside, due to different concentrations of ions on the inside and outside. These ions include sodium and potassium (most important), calcium and chloride.
The heart must depolarize before it can contract, which means ths insides of the cells must become positively charged and the outsides must become negatively charged. This depolarization is caused by an increase in the conductance of sodium across the membrane. The sodium brings with it calcium, to activate the contractile proteins. When the impulse spreads through transverse tubules (T-tubules) from the sarcolemma to calcium storage sites in the sarcoplasmic reticulum (membrane tubes near the sarcomeres, which cause contraction), calcium ions are released and cause contraction. Once the contraction is complete, the calcium is pumped back into the storage sites. During this phase, repolarization, the cells return to their resting action potentials. Potassium conductivity increases and the movement of sodium and calcium into the cell slows down.
An electocardiogram (ECG) measures the differences in membrane potentials on the heart's surface by determining the difference between 2 electrodes placed on the body's surface.
The SA node creates an impulse that carries a wave of depolarization over both atria. This is the p-wave. It immediately precedes atrial contraction and allows for simultaneous contraction of the left and right atria.
Once the impulse reaches the AV node, there is a slight delay to allow for blood to pass through the AV valve. Once the AV node is stimulated, the ventricles depolarize, creating the QRS complex.
The impulse then enters the AV Bundle, left and right bundle branches and purkinje fibers, which allow for rapid stimulation of the ventricular muscles. The contraction of the ventricles occur just after the appearance of the QRS complex. Atrial repolarization occurs at this time, but is usually hidden by the QRS complex on ECGs.
The T-wave represents the repolarization of the ventricles, just after ventricular contraction. The ST segment appears between the S and T wave, and detects deficiencies in coronary artery blood flow.
A refractory period occurs after contraction of cardiac muscle. During this time, the muscle is incapable of a full contraction, and an attempt at depolarization during this interval results in a reduced force of cardiac contraction.
Training's effects on ECG
Appearance of sinus bradycardia- Trained athletes have reduced resting heart rates. This is probably due to reduced stimulation from the sympathetic nervous system and increased stimulation from the parasympathetic nervous system. Also, a lower intrinsic heart rate may contribute to the lower RHR.
Other disturbances that may be visible in the ECGs of athletes include: AV conduction delays, wandering atrial pacemaker, ST segment elevation, T-wave inversion, substitute of the AV node as primary pacemakes. These are also common in those with ischemic heart disease. Athletes tend to have an increased stimulation of parasympathetic influences from the vagus nerve, which can disappear during exercise since parasympathetic stimulation decreases and sympathetic stimulation increases during exercise.
The heart must depolarize before it can contract, which means ths insides of the cells must become positively charged and the outsides must become negatively charged. This depolarization is caused by an increase in the conductance of sodium across the membrane. The sodium brings with it calcium, to activate the contractile proteins. When the impulse spreads through transverse tubules (T-tubules) from the sarcolemma to calcium storage sites in the sarcoplasmic reticulum (membrane tubes near the sarcomeres, which cause contraction), calcium ions are released and cause contraction. Once the contraction is complete, the calcium is pumped back into the storage sites. During this phase, repolarization, the cells return to their resting action potentials. Potassium conductivity increases and the movement of sodium and calcium into the cell slows down.
An electocardiogram (ECG) measures the differences in membrane potentials on the heart's surface by determining the difference between 2 electrodes placed on the body's surface.
The SA node creates an impulse that carries a wave of depolarization over both atria. This is the p-wave. It immediately precedes atrial contraction and allows for simultaneous contraction of the left and right atria.
Once the impulse reaches the AV node, there is a slight delay to allow for blood to pass through the AV valve. Once the AV node is stimulated, the ventricles depolarize, creating the QRS complex.
The impulse then enters the AV Bundle, left and right bundle branches and purkinje fibers, which allow for rapid stimulation of the ventricular muscles. The contraction of the ventricles occur just after the appearance of the QRS complex. Atrial repolarization occurs at this time, but is usually hidden by the QRS complex on ECGs.
The T-wave represents the repolarization of the ventricles, just after ventricular contraction. The ST segment appears between the S and T wave, and detects deficiencies in coronary artery blood flow.
A refractory period occurs after contraction of cardiac muscle. During this time, the muscle is incapable of a full contraction, and an attempt at depolarization during this interval results in a reduced force of cardiac contraction.
Training's effects on ECG
Appearance of sinus bradycardia- Trained athletes have reduced resting heart rates. This is probably due to reduced stimulation from the sympathetic nervous system and increased stimulation from the parasympathetic nervous system. Also, a lower intrinsic heart rate may contribute to the lower RHR.
Other disturbances that may be visible in the ECGs of athletes include: AV conduction delays, wandering atrial pacemaker, ST segment elevation, T-wave inversion, substitute of the AV node as primary pacemakes. These are also common in those with ischemic heart disease. Athletes tend to have an increased stimulation of parasympathetic influences from the vagus nerve, which can disappear during exercise since parasympathetic stimulation decreases and sympathetic stimulation increases during exercise.
Sunday, March 30, 2008
Atherosclerosis
Atherosclerosis is a form of arteriosclerosis, which involves the build-up of plaque. 60-70% of build-ups cause an MI to occur, but most fatal heart attacks result from a 40% blockage.
Plaque formed on vessel walls crack or break, causing the fibrous cap (scab) to break as well. The contents of the plaque are released into the bloodstream, causing a clot to develop. The clot moves through smaller blood vessels and ends up blocking the bloodstream. This clot is called a thrombus.
Thrombolytic drugs can dissolve clots if administered within 2-6 hours, but most people don't want to go to the Emergency Room.
Atherosclerosis is the accumulation of lipids and other substances in the innermost lining of the blood vessel wall, the endothelial cells. These lipids are not an isolated thing- everyone has some. They start in childhood but manifest in adulthood, becoming visible to the naked eye by age 3.
The "Injury Theory" suggests that an unknown injury occurs at the endothelial cells. A monocyte, white blood cell, moves to the area and can be trapped under the lining due to a disconnect in the endothelial cell. Possibly an inflammatory response occurs, which attracts more monocytes to the area.
The monocytes become macrophages, which swallow other things including lipids and LDL. The macrophages then become foam cells, which are a component of the fatty streak. As the accumulation develops under the blood vessel wall, smooth muscle surrounds the blood vessel and allows vasocontriction and vasodilation. Macrophages release a signal for reinforcement and smooth muscle cells and LDL come to the site, as well as clotting factors that initiate a clot.
The accumulation bulges out into the blood vessel and reduces flow. A fibrous cap forms that covers it. It may crack or break open, then form a clot in a smaller blood vessel.
Plaque formed on vessel walls crack or break, causing the fibrous cap (scab) to break as well. The contents of the plaque are released into the bloodstream, causing a clot to develop. The clot moves through smaller blood vessels and ends up blocking the bloodstream. This clot is called a thrombus.
Thrombolytic drugs can dissolve clots if administered within 2-6 hours, but most people don't want to go to the Emergency Room.
Atherosclerosis is the accumulation of lipids and other substances in the innermost lining of the blood vessel wall, the endothelial cells. These lipids are not an isolated thing- everyone has some. They start in childhood but manifest in adulthood, becoming visible to the naked eye by age 3.
The "Injury Theory" suggests that an unknown injury occurs at the endothelial cells. A monocyte, white blood cell, moves to the area and can be trapped under the lining due to a disconnect in the endothelial cell. Possibly an inflammatory response occurs, which attracts more monocytes to the area.
The monocytes become macrophages, which swallow other things including lipids and LDL. The macrophages then become foam cells, which are a component of the fatty streak. As the accumulation develops under the blood vessel wall, smooth muscle surrounds the blood vessel and allows vasocontriction and vasodilation. Macrophages release a signal for reinforcement and smooth muscle cells and LDL come to the site, as well as clotting factors that initiate a clot.
The accumulation bulges out into the blood vessel and reduces flow. A fibrous cap forms that covers it. It may crack or break open, then form a clot in a smaller blood vessel.
CV Responses to Acute Exercise
Increased heart rate (linear) as a direct function of the SA Nore. Neural control starts to lose predominance as the intensity of exercises increases. No change with maximal heart rate.
Increased stroke volume. Affected by heart rate, preload, afterload, contractility.
troke volume increases until about 40-60% of maximum capacity, then levels off. Per Gladhill, stroke volume does not plateau in endurance athletes. Postmenopausal women may hit a peak, then decline. Stroke volume is the factor that separates the athlete from the non-athlete. If there is a plateau, then an increase in Cardac Output is the result of an increase in heart rate.
Increased stroke volume. Affected by heart rate, preload, afterload, contractility.
troke volume increases until about 40-60% of maximum capacity, then levels off. Per Gladhill, stroke volume does not plateau in endurance athletes. Postmenopausal women may hit a peak, then decline. Stroke volume is the factor that separates the athlete from the non-athlete. If there is a plateau, then an increase in Cardac Output is the result of an increase in heart rate.
Systolic blood pressure increases with exercise because cardiac output increases, which means more blood is being pumped out of the heart. The diastolic blood pressure does not change much - draining through the system. Changes in the diastolic blood pressure greater than 10mm Hg is reason to stop exercising.
Mean arterial pressure is the average of the systolic and diastolic blood pressure, and describes the average driving pressure for movement of blood. Since the heart is in diastole for 2/3 of each beat, then MAP is determined calculating DBP + 1/3(SBP-DBP).
Total Peripheral Resistance decreases with exercise.
av-O2 Difference is the difference between the amount of oxygen in the arteries and the amount of oxygen in the veins. This tells us how efficiently the muscles are extracting and using oxygen. During exercise, this difference increases.
Saturday, March 29, 2008
Krebs Cycle and Electron Transport Chain
Describes the specific metabolic pathway within cells to account for oxidation of basic food components (carbohydrates, fat, protein) for energy. The reactions all occur within the mitochondria of the cells.
Acetyl CoA can be formed from glucose metabolism, fatty acid metabolism, or amino acid metabolism. No matter how it was formed, the majority of it goes into the Citric Acid, or Krebs Cycle.
Acetyl CoA splits off a coenzyme A group. This releases bond energy to power the next reaction. The acetyl group couples to oxaloacetate, resulting in the formation of citrate, which then undergoes a series of conversions. The final product of these conversions is oxaloacetate. This allows for incoming Acetyl CoA and the cycle is repeated. The acetyl group is completely oxidised to form 2 carbon dioxide molecules. One of these reactions produces GTP, which is converted to ATP. Four of these reactions are oxidative reactions; 3 where NAD acts as the electron acceptor, and 1 where FAD acts as the electron acceptor. Since the supply of oxidised cofactors is limited, NADH and FADH must be re-oxidised, which is where the electron transport chain comes into play.
The purpose of the electron transport chain is to reoxidise NADH and FADH to NAD and FAD, respectively. This occurs through a series of oxidations/reduction reactions, producing bond energy harnessed to the reaction of the production of ATP and water. 3 ATP are produced for every NADH involved, and 2 ATP are produced for every FADH involved. Oxygen is the final electron acceptor, producing water.
Acetyl CoA can be formed from glucose metabolism, fatty acid metabolism, or amino acid metabolism. No matter how it was formed, the majority of it goes into the Citric Acid, or Krebs Cycle.
Acetyl CoA splits off a coenzyme A group. This releases bond energy to power the next reaction. The acetyl group couples to oxaloacetate, resulting in the formation of citrate, which then undergoes a series of conversions. The final product of these conversions is oxaloacetate. This allows for incoming Acetyl CoA and the cycle is repeated. The acetyl group is completely oxidised to form 2 carbon dioxide molecules. One of these reactions produces GTP, which is converted to ATP. Four of these reactions are oxidative reactions; 3 where NAD acts as the electron acceptor, and 1 where FAD acts as the electron acceptor. Since the supply of oxidised cofactors is limited, NADH and FADH must be re-oxidised, which is where the electron transport chain comes into play.
The purpose of the electron transport chain is to reoxidise NADH and FADH to NAD and FAD, respectively. This occurs through a series of oxidations/reduction reactions, producing bond energy harnessed to the reaction of the production of ATP and water. 3 ATP are produced for every NADH involved, and 2 ATP are produced for every FADH involved. Oxygen is the final electron acceptor, producing water.
Fat Metabolism
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) is a compound used to exchange or supply energy for endergonic processes. Endergonic processes are those in which energy is absorbed in the form of work- energy is required and leads to the formation of molecular bonds, which results in decreased entropy (useless energy). ATP is hydrolysed by either removing 1 terminal phosphate (ATP ---> ADP + Pi) or removing 2 terminal phosphates (ATP ---> AMP + Pi).
Skeletal muscles are very efficient at converting chemical energy into mechanical energy with little waste (30-50%). ATP is regenerated from Creatine Phosphate during exercise. Creatine Phophate can quickly release a phosphate group, which can react with ADP to create the ATP necessary for muscle contraction. At rest, normal cell metabolism resynthesises ATP, which in turn resynthesises Creatine Phosphate.
Dietary fat is digested, then stored as triglycerides, which is the major fuel source stored in the body. A triglyceride is a glycerol molecule with 3 fatty acids attached. Triglycerides are non-polar (meaning there is equal sharing of electrons between two atoms). Chlyomicrons are large lipoprotein particles that give the triglycerides a polar coat and transport them to adipose tissue. The enzyme lipoprotein lipase is stimulated by insulin and stores the triglyceride in the adipose tissue.
The release of triglycerides from fatty tissue, when needed, is catalyzed by the enzyme mobilisng lipase, which is stimulated by glucagon and adrenaline. The triglycerides are transported via attachment to the major protein in circulation, albumin, to the tissue for oxidation.
Triglycerides make up about 70% of the body's energy reserves due to the efficiency with which they are stored and their ability to be highly reduced. Since they are anhydrous (stored without water due to their non-polar nature), triglycerides tend to be compact and light. Vast quantities of triglycerides can be stored in less space. Since they are a largely hydrocarbon chain (16-20 covalently linked methyl groups), they are highly reduced and capable of yielding a large supply of energy (40 J/g as compared to 18 J/g glycogen).
B-Oxidation of Fatty Acids occurs within the mitochondria of the liver and muscles. During sustained exercise, this cyclic chain provides a major source of energy in slow-twitch muscles. Each cycle of this chain of reactions results in 2 carbohydrates hydrolysed into molecules of Acetyl CoA from a fatty acid chain. Each cycle of the chain also contains NAD ---> NADH and FAD ---> FADH. The NADH and FADH are then oxidised to the electron transport chain and coupled with ATP production, while the Acetyl CoA molecules are converted into CO2 in the Citric Acid Cycle, then participate in the electron transport chain, coupled with ATP production.
Ketone Bodies are 4-carbon units that are oxidised in an alternate method of using Acetyl CoA formed in B-oxidation. In this process, Acteyl CoA is converted to acetoacetate in the liver, then further reduced to b-hydroxybutyrate. Acetoacetate is preferred as a source of energy over glucose by heart muscle and the renal cortex. The brain prefers glucose, but can use acetoacetate if necessary, as during starvation. Fatty acids can't enter neural tissue, so acetoacetate is regarded as a water-soluble, easily-transportable version of Acetyl CoA. The efficiency of this mechanism as compared to B-oxidation is comparable.
Fatty Acid Synthesis occurs in the cytoplasm of cells. Cyclic reactions occur, resulting in the conversion of Acteyl CoA to 2-carbon units added to the fatty acid chain. This supplies fatty acids that are needed by the body but not supplied through the diet. The purpose of fatty acid synthesis is to convert excess dietary glucose to fatty acids for storage. Glucose is converted to Pyruvate through glycolysis, then to Acteyl CoA. If ATP is required, then Acetyl CoA is oxidised via the Citric Acid Cycle. If glucose intake exceeds the body's needs, then the Acetyl CoA is used in fatty acid synthesis in the liver or is stored as triglycerides in the adipose tissue.
The drawback to fat metabolism is that it requres oxygen. If energy is needed faster than oxygen can be delivered to the working muscles, then they switch to one of the less-efficient anaerobic pathways.
ATP - Adenosine Triphosphate. 1 phosphate ---> 7.3 kcal/mole
NADH - Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide. Can transfer 2 electrons and 1 hydrogen ion to oxygen. --->52 kcal/mole.....3 ATP formed.
FADH2 - Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide. 43.4 kcal/mole......2 ATP formed.
Skeletal muscles are very efficient at converting chemical energy into mechanical energy with little waste (30-50%). ATP is regenerated from Creatine Phosphate during exercise. Creatine Phophate can quickly release a phosphate group, which can react with ADP to create the ATP necessary for muscle contraction. At rest, normal cell metabolism resynthesises ATP, which in turn resynthesises Creatine Phosphate.
Dietary fat is digested, then stored as triglycerides, which is the major fuel source stored in the body. A triglyceride is a glycerol molecule with 3 fatty acids attached. Triglycerides are non-polar (meaning there is equal sharing of electrons between two atoms). Chlyomicrons are large lipoprotein particles that give the triglycerides a polar coat and transport them to adipose tissue. The enzyme lipoprotein lipase is stimulated by insulin and stores the triglyceride in the adipose tissue.
The release of triglycerides from fatty tissue, when needed, is catalyzed by the enzyme mobilisng lipase, which is stimulated by glucagon and adrenaline. The triglycerides are transported via attachment to the major protein in circulation, albumin, to the tissue for oxidation.
Triglycerides make up about 70% of the body's energy reserves due to the efficiency with which they are stored and their ability to be highly reduced. Since they are anhydrous (stored without water due to their non-polar nature), triglycerides tend to be compact and light. Vast quantities of triglycerides can be stored in less space. Since they are a largely hydrocarbon chain (16-20 covalently linked methyl groups), they are highly reduced and capable of yielding a large supply of energy (40 J/g as compared to 18 J/g glycogen).
B-Oxidation of Fatty Acids occurs within the mitochondria of the liver and muscles. During sustained exercise, this cyclic chain provides a major source of energy in slow-twitch muscles. Each cycle of this chain of reactions results in 2 carbohydrates hydrolysed into molecules of Acetyl CoA from a fatty acid chain. Each cycle of the chain also contains NAD ---> NADH and FAD ---> FADH. The NADH and FADH are then oxidised to the electron transport chain and coupled with ATP production, while the Acetyl CoA molecules are converted into CO2 in the Citric Acid Cycle, then participate in the electron transport chain, coupled with ATP production.
Ketone Bodies are 4-carbon units that are oxidised in an alternate method of using Acetyl CoA formed in B-oxidation. In this process, Acteyl CoA is converted to acetoacetate in the liver, then further reduced to b-hydroxybutyrate. Acetoacetate is preferred as a source of energy over glucose by heart muscle and the renal cortex. The brain prefers glucose, but can use acetoacetate if necessary, as during starvation. Fatty acids can't enter neural tissue, so acetoacetate is regarded as a water-soluble, easily-transportable version of Acetyl CoA. The efficiency of this mechanism as compared to B-oxidation is comparable.
Fatty Acid Synthesis occurs in the cytoplasm of cells. Cyclic reactions occur, resulting in the conversion of Acteyl CoA to 2-carbon units added to the fatty acid chain. This supplies fatty acids that are needed by the body but not supplied through the diet. The purpose of fatty acid synthesis is to convert excess dietary glucose to fatty acids for storage. Glucose is converted to Pyruvate through glycolysis, then to Acteyl CoA. If ATP is required, then Acetyl CoA is oxidised via the Citric Acid Cycle. If glucose intake exceeds the body's needs, then the Acetyl CoA is used in fatty acid synthesis in the liver or is stored as triglycerides in the adipose tissue.
The drawback to fat metabolism is that it requres oxygen. If energy is needed faster than oxygen can be delivered to the working muscles, then they switch to one of the less-efficient anaerobic pathways.
ATP - Adenosine Triphosphate. 1 phosphate ---> 7.3 kcal/mole
NADH - Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide. Can transfer 2 electrons and 1 hydrogen ion to oxygen. --->52 kcal/mole.....3 ATP formed.
FADH2 - Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide. 43.4 kcal/mole......2 ATP formed.
Sunday, January 20, 2008
Self-Perception and Self-Esteem
Self-perception is a fundamental concept when studying any aspect of human psychology. Especially in sport, it is obvious how one's self-perception can affect his or her performance. In a Psychology of Sport class in grad school, we were asked to list all of the characteristics we possessed that make up our own personal identities. I wrote down a lot of adjectives that would be considered traits athletes would share: hard worker, self-critical, high standards- but I did not include "athlete" among my list of roles. I have studied various definitions of what constitutes an athlete. According to Brad Hatfield, it is "one who engages in a social comparison process (competition) involving physical prowess and/or psychomotor skill in an institutional setting involving public evaluation of the outcome". Per this definition, I am no longer an athlete since my competition is no longer shared with the public, but kept to myself. My own personal definition of "athlete" differs. In my opinion, someone who participates in her skill, every day setting new goals for herself and striving to achieve them, is an athlete. I define an athlete as someone who engages in physical activity consistently, constantly reaching new heights and accomplishing new feats. There is definitely a love of the sport, or of sport in general, which helps maintain this devotion to it. If that is my own perception of what an athlete is, then I should consider myself an athlete. I run religiously and am constantly setting new goals for myself in terms of distance and time. I base a lot of my lifestyle around my dedication to running: I get up earlier to run before I start my day, I eat my meals in accordance with when I will be running to provide optimal energy and replenishment. My motivation comes from the fact that I achieve these goals regularly, and I love running because I feel good when I do it. I am always in the process of striving to meet a goal. I push myself until I can't go anymore, then I go one more minute just to prove that I can. I am usually proud of my accomplishments.
Obviously, I am aware of my progress and my achievements as a runner, but it was no mistake that I omitted "athlete" from my list of characteristics. In order to enhance and improve our own self-esteem, we develop a self-serving bias that permits us to ignore or forget negative information in order to protect our egos. This is why the name-calling era of our middle school years does not usually affect us in our adult lives. We get over it. Like most people who suffer from low self-esteem, instead of rejecting these negative thoughts and discounting the importance of activities where I lack in achievement or skill, the opposite occurs. While the average person may try to ice skate and fail, then announce that ice skating is a stupid sport anyway, I would try to ice skate and fail, then decide that I'm stupid because I couldn't do it.
The correlation between self-esteem and self-perception is obvious. The lower an individual's self-esteem, the less credit he gives himself, and the more lacking his self-perception is. The worse an individual's self-perception, the worse that person's performance will be in anything, including sports. Concentrating on a single mistake or lack of ability in one aspect of a sport can take the focus away from the game itself. If in the first two minutes of a volleyball game in high school I served the ball into the net, the next few minutes of the game would be spent feeling like I let the team down and questioning my abilities as a player, instead of concentrating on the ongoing game. After making the same mistake, someone with greater self-esteem would realized that they served poorly, realize where the mistake was made, resolve to do better next time, shake it off and resume focus on the game. They can look past this single mistake because they are aware and confident of their skills and abilities and they know they are capable of serving the ball over the net. Those who lack confidence feel the need to convince themselves and others of their abilities and feel that they failed to do so with that bad serve. The may shrink away from trying again so as not to embarrass themselves further. More confidence leads to taking more chances, which can be seen as making more of an effort. Confidence also leaves more time to focus on the sport and not dwell so much on the flaws in each individual performance.
Sports can reverse this process. Achievements in sports can actually increase self-esteem. From creating a more pleasing and athletic body image to feeling a sense of accomplishment, being more active can make a person feel a greater sense of self-worth. Being part of a team and contributing to victories can do wonders for a person's self-perception.
I am beginning to realize that if I don't improve my self-esteem and open my mind to the possibility that I can, in athletic terms, be something great, then I will never reach my full potential. I feel that in order for me to consider myself an athlete, by my own terms, I need not to improve my physical ability as much as my perception of self.
Obviously, I am aware of my progress and my achievements as a runner, but it was no mistake that I omitted "athlete" from my list of characteristics. In order to enhance and improve our own self-esteem, we develop a self-serving bias that permits us to ignore or forget negative information in order to protect our egos. This is why the name-calling era of our middle school years does not usually affect us in our adult lives. We get over it. Like most people who suffer from low self-esteem, instead of rejecting these negative thoughts and discounting the importance of activities where I lack in achievement or skill, the opposite occurs. While the average person may try to ice skate and fail, then announce that ice skating is a stupid sport anyway, I would try to ice skate and fail, then decide that I'm stupid because I couldn't do it.
The correlation between self-esteem and self-perception is obvious. The lower an individual's self-esteem, the less credit he gives himself, and the more lacking his self-perception is. The worse an individual's self-perception, the worse that person's performance will be in anything, including sports. Concentrating on a single mistake or lack of ability in one aspect of a sport can take the focus away from the game itself. If in the first two minutes of a volleyball game in high school I served the ball into the net, the next few minutes of the game would be spent feeling like I let the team down and questioning my abilities as a player, instead of concentrating on the ongoing game. After making the same mistake, someone with greater self-esteem would realized that they served poorly, realize where the mistake was made, resolve to do better next time, shake it off and resume focus on the game. They can look past this single mistake because they are aware and confident of their skills and abilities and they know they are capable of serving the ball over the net. Those who lack confidence feel the need to convince themselves and others of their abilities and feel that they failed to do so with that bad serve. The may shrink away from trying again so as not to embarrass themselves further. More confidence leads to taking more chances, which can be seen as making more of an effort. Confidence also leaves more time to focus on the sport and not dwell so much on the flaws in each individual performance.
Sports can reverse this process. Achievements in sports can actually increase self-esteem. From creating a more pleasing and athletic body image to feeling a sense of accomplishment, being more active can make a person feel a greater sense of self-worth. Being part of a team and contributing to victories can do wonders for a person's self-perception.
I am beginning to realize that if I don't improve my self-esteem and open my mind to the possibility that I can, in athletic terms, be something great, then I will never reach my full potential. I feel that in order for me to consider myself an athlete, by my own terms, I need not to improve my physical ability as much as my perception of self.
Factors Contributing to Child Obesity in the US
This is the rough draft of a research paper I had to write my first semester in grad school. I got a good grade on the final paper, but I seem to have lost it. So I'm putting this up and may make changes to it to make it more polished. If nothing else, there are some interesting facts contained in the mess :o)
In today's society, the number of overweight Americans is steadily increasing. Obesity is considered an epidemic, affecting not only adults but children as well. The percent of overweight and obese children in America is rising at an alarming rate. Today, over 4.7 million American youths between the ages of 6 and 17 years are overweight or obese (Briggs, Safaii & Beall, 2003), and this number has tripled over the past 30 years (Troiano, 2002). Although diet contributes greatly to this growing problem of obesity in children, there are many other factors that come into play when considering its cause and potential remedies.
Obesity describes the condition of carrying excess body fat (Hodges 2003). It is the result of too much energy intake from food, too little energy output in the form of physical activity, or a combination of the two. The percentage of fat, or adipose tissue, in the body can be accurately measured using a variety of methods, including magnetic resonance imaging and underwater weighing. These tools tend to be costly and are not always readily available to most people, so other more practical methods of obtaining measurements of adiposity, like skin fold thickness and Body Mass Index (BMI) are used more widely. Generally, children with BMIs above the 85th percentile with accompanying health complications are considered obese and should be evaluated for treatment (Hodges 2003). Unfortunately, BMI is only a measurement of the height-to-weight ratio and is not an accurate description of body composition. Actual body fat percentage is a more accurate measurement of what portion of the total body weight is adipose, and whether it is withing a normal range for a person's height, age and body frame.
There is no set profile describing the most likely candidate for childhood obesity. The condition is more prevalent among Hispanic, African-American and American Indian children. On average, more calories from fat are consumed by both male and female non-Hispanic blacks (Troiano, Biefel, Carroll & Bialostosky 2000). Studies have shown that overweight children in America often come from low-income households where there is not enough income to keep a variety of healthy and nutritious foods around the house. In these cases, the cost of food, rather than nutritious content, determines what is purchased and, consequently, what is available to the children in that household (Gable & Lutz 2000).
Regardless of race or income, childhood obesity can lead to health problems in the future. One of the conditions most commonly associated with overweight children is non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus. Cardiovascular disease, cancer and hypertension are all major health risks that increase as a result of obesity. The excess weight carried on the body can lead to orthopedic problems and arthritis. Finally, low self-esteem often occurs in children who are noticeably bigger than their peers (Troiano, Biefel, Carroll & Bialostosky, 2000). Habits and attitudes towards food during childhood create long-term eating patterns that can seriously affect health as adults. One study found that 26-41% of obese preschoolers become obese adults (Atkins & Davies, 2000).
The underlying cause of excessive weight is when more energy is consumed than expended, over a long periods of time. Guidelines have been set for what is an appropriate requirement for energy intake for children, derived from total energy expenditure with an allowance for growth and development (Butte, 2000). Much concern is centered around fat consumption, stemming from the belief that the more dietary fat consumed, the more adipose is deposited. Organizations like the American Academy of Pediatrics and the American Heart Association recommend that for children over the age of 2, about 30% of total energy consumed be derived from fat, in order to ensure adequate growth. Less than 10% of total energy consumed should be derived from saturated fat. Children under the age of 2 should consume about 30-40% of their total energy intake from fat to allow for growth and development (Butte 2000). In terms of actual fat intake, there is little difference between the dietary guidelines set by these organizations and what is currently being consumed. Generally, children between the ages of 2 and 19 are consuming about 34% of energy from dietary fat (Butte 2000). Diets that are lower in fat usually result in unsatisfactory intakes of many vitamins and minerals, especially fat-soluble vitamins (Butte 2000). This decreased intake of vitamins and minerals may result in poor growth rates, implying that low-fat diets may not be the best option for children. Research suggests that children are consuming more than the recommended amounts of energy from fat, but not meeting the recommendations for fruit and vegetable intake (Bordi, Park, Watkins, Caldwell & DeVitis 2002). Since the early 1970's, however, fat intake has declined from 36-37% of total energy intake to 33-34%; and saturated fat intake has decreased from 14% to 12% of total energy intake (Troiano, Briefel, Carroll & Bialostosky 2000). Additionally, it's been found that the actual amount of dietary fat consumed had little or no impact on the percentage of body fat in children ages 2-3. While it is true that dietary fat contains more energy per gram than other micro nutrients (compare 9kcal/g of fat to 4kcal/g of protein and 4 kcal/g of carbohydrates), it appears from the above statistics that excessive fat consumption is not a leading cause for concern regarding obesity in children. Consumption of excessive calories creates a bigger difference between energy intake and output.
Beverages consistently appear as a main contributor of excessive energy intake in children and adolescents, especially soft drinks (Troiano, Briefel, Carroll & Bialostosky 2000). Calories in beverages often add up unnoticed, but can account for 20-24% total energy intake in most children, with soft drinks alone making up 8% of total calories consumed. These soft drinks are full of "empty calories" that generally contain little or no nutrients but are high in calories.
A more beneficial and healthy way to consume calories is to eat more nutrient-dense foods like fruit and vegetables, which contain higher amounts of nutrients per calorie. Consumption of nutrient-dense foods like these is low: only 2% of school-age children currently meet the recommendations set by the Food Pyramid Guide for all 5 of the food groups. Less than 30% meet the recommendations for any one of the food groups (Briggs et al., 2003). Slightly over half of school age children eat less than one serving of fruit per day, and 29% don't even eat one serving of non-fried vegetables each day.
One in five 15-18 year-olds skip breakfast each day, and depending on gender and age, 56-85% of children consume soda on any given day (Briggs et al., 2003. Although statistics like these are less than favorable for a proper diet, eating habits are not entirely to blame for the nation's obesity issue. Even a healthy, balanced diet can lead to weight gain if the energy expended is consistently far lower than energy consumed. Studies show that current rates of total energy expenditure (TEE) are 10-12% below recommendations set by associations such as the World Health Organization (Atkin & Davies, 2000). While it is true that some energy goes towards growth and maturation, it is not likely that that has changed from 2% of TEE. Gable & Lutz found that 20% of children ages 8-16 exercise vigorously twice per week or less. A 1998 study shows that 67% of children in the same age group watch over 2 hours of television per day. Not surprisingly, it has also been determined that leaner children spend less time watching television than heavier children (Jonides, Buschbacher, & Barlow, 2002).
A major influence on a child's eating and fitness habits is school. Of the 53.2 million school age children in the United States, 27 million participate in the National School Lunch program. School lunches provide on average one-third the Recommended Daily Allowances for most nutrients, but contain excessive amounts of fat, saturated fat and sodium (Seo, Hiemstra & Boushey, 2003). The school systems have a lot of potential to create lunches for children that will provide adequate vitamins and minerals and acceptable amounts of all the macro nutrients. Schools can help combat obesity in other ways as well. The amount of physical education taught in schools is decreasing. This may very well be the only physical activity some students participate in at all.
Education can increase knowledge about food and exercise, but may not change behavior. In a study by Blom-Hoffman & DuPaul in 2003, students who received a nutrition education class over a 13-week period showed improvement on a post-test nutrition examination, but showed no remarkable change in behavior. Role models, especially parents and teachers, are a huge influence on a child's lifestyle, including diet and exercise habits. Children ages 4-7 who have parents that are physically active are nearly six times more likely to be physically active than children with parents who are not physically active (Hodges 2003). In today's busy society where both parents work full-time, fresh meals are often exchanged for processed or fast food; both of which usually contain high amounts of sodium, fat and calories and little amounts of vitamin-rich fruits and vegetables. Regular consumption of these high-calorie meals, along with minuscule amounts of physical activity, creates a large amount of energy left to be stored as fat. Habits like these are formed during childhood and the overweight child becomes an obese adult. The longer these habits are practiced, the more difficult it becomes to make the changes necessary to transform the lifestyle into a healthier one.
There is not one specific factor that causes obesity in children, but a combination of lifestyle choices that result in excessive amounts of energy being consumed compared to the low amount of energy expended. There is no question that being severely overweight as a child leads to health complications. In order to decrease the prevalence of obesity, people must be educated at an early age of the benefits of healthy food selection, and good habits must be formed regarding exercise and activity. Attention must be paid the the total amount of calories consumed, especially from beverages, and more effort must be placed on choosing nutrient-dense foods. Daily physical activity is a must. Efforts must be made by role models such as parents and teachers to encourage healthy lifestyles both through education and example.
In today's society, the number of overweight Americans is steadily increasing. Obesity is considered an epidemic, affecting not only adults but children as well. The percent of overweight and obese children in America is rising at an alarming rate. Today, over 4.7 million American youths between the ages of 6 and 17 years are overweight or obese (Briggs, Safaii & Beall, 2003), and this number has tripled over the past 30 years (Troiano, 2002). Although diet contributes greatly to this growing problem of obesity in children, there are many other factors that come into play when considering its cause and potential remedies.
Obesity describes the condition of carrying excess body fat (Hodges 2003). It is the result of too much energy intake from food, too little energy output in the form of physical activity, or a combination of the two. The percentage of fat, or adipose tissue, in the body can be accurately measured using a variety of methods, including magnetic resonance imaging and underwater weighing. These tools tend to be costly and are not always readily available to most people, so other more practical methods of obtaining measurements of adiposity, like skin fold thickness and Body Mass Index (BMI) are used more widely. Generally, children with BMIs above the 85th percentile with accompanying health complications are considered obese and should be evaluated for treatment (Hodges 2003). Unfortunately, BMI is only a measurement of the height-to-weight ratio and is not an accurate description of body composition. Actual body fat percentage is a more accurate measurement of what portion of the total body weight is adipose, and whether it is withing a normal range for a person's height, age and body frame.
There is no set profile describing the most likely candidate for childhood obesity. The condition is more prevalent among Hispanic, African-American and American Indian children. On average, more calories from fat are consumed by both male and female non-Hispanic blacks (Troiano, Biefel, Carroll & Bialostosky 2000). Studies have shown that overweight children in America often come from low-income households where there is not enough income to keep a variety of healthy and nutritious foods around the house. In these cases, the cost of food, rather than nutritious content, determines what is purchased and, consequently, what is available to the children in that household (Gable & Lutz 2000).
Regardless of race or income, childhood obesity can lead to health problems in the future. One of the conditions most commonly associated with overweight children is non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus. Cardiovascular disease, cancer and hypertension are all major health risks that increase as a result of obesity. The excess weight carried on the body can lead to orthopedic problems and arthritis. Finally, low self-esteem often occurs in children who are noticeably bigger than their peers (Troiano, Biefel, Carroll & Bialostosky, 2000). Habits and attitudes towards food during childhood create long-term eating patterns that can seriously affect health as adults. One study found that 26-41% of obese preschoolers become obese adults (Atkins & Davies, 2000).
The underlying cause of excessive weight is when more energy is consumed than expended, over a long periods of time. Guidelines have been set for what is an appropriate requirement for energy intake for children, derived from total energy expenditure with an allowance for growth and development (Butte, 2000). Much concern is centered around fat consumption, stemming from the belief that the more dietary fat consumed, the more adipose is deposited. Organizations like the American Academy of Pediatrics and the American Heart Association recommend that for children over the age of 2, about 30% of total energy consumed be derived from fat, in order to ensure adequate growth. Less than 10% of total energy consumed should be derived from saturated fat. Children under the age of 2 should consume about 30-40% of their total energy intake from fat to allow for growth and development (Butte 2000). In terms of actual fat intake, there is little difference between the dietary guidelines set by these organizations and what is currently being consumed. Generally, children between the ages of 2 and 19 are consuming about 34% of energy from dietary fat (Butte 2000). Diets that are lower in fat usually result in unsatisfactory intakes of many vitamins and minerals, especially fat-soluble vitamins (Butte 2000). This decreased intake of vitamins and minerals may result in poor growth rates, implying that low-fat diets may not be the best option for children. Research suggests that children are consuming more than the recommended amounts of energy from fat, but not meeting the recommendations for fruit and vegetable intake (Bordi, Park, Watkins, Caldwell & DeVitis 2002). Since the early 1970's, however, fat intake has declined from 36-37% of total energy intake to 33-34%; and saturated fat intake has decreased from 14% to 12% of total energy intake (Troiano, Briefel, Carroll & Bialostosky 2000). Additionally, it's been found that the actual amount of dietary fat consumed had little or no impact on the percentage of body fat in children ages 2-3. While it is true that dietary fat contains more energy per gram than other micro nutrients (compare 9kcal/g of fat to 4kcal/g of protein and 4 kcal/g of carbohydrates), it appears from the above statistics that excessive fat consumption is not a leading cause for concern regarding obesity in children. Consumption of excessive calories creates a bigger difference between energy intake and output.
Beverages consistently appear as a main contributor of excessive energy intake in children and adolescents, especially soft drinks (Troiano, Briefel, Carroll & Bialostosky 2000). Calories in beverages often add up unnoticed, but can account for 20-24% total energy intake in most children, with soft drinks alone making up 8% of total calories consumed. These soft drinks are full of "empty calories" that generally contain little or no nutrients but are high in calories.
A more beneficial and healthy way to consume calories is to eat more nutrient-dense foods like fruit and vegetables, which contain higher amounts of nutrients per calorie. Consumption of nutrient-dense foods like these is low: only 2% of school-age children currently meet the recommendations set by the Food Pyramid Guide for all 5 of the food groups. Less than 30% meet the recommendations for any one of the food groups (Briggs et al., 2003). Slightly over half of school age children eat less than one serving of fruit per day, and 29% don't even eat one serving of non-fried vegetables each day.
One in five 15-18 year-olds skip breakfast each day, and depending on gender and age, 56-85% of children consume soda on any given day (Briggs et al., 2003. Although statistics like these are less than favorable for a proper diet, eating habits are not entirely to blame for the nation's obesity issue. Even a healthy, balanced diet can lead to weight gain if the energy expended is consistently far lower than energy consumed. Studies show that current rates of total energy expenditure (TEE) are 10-12% below recommendations set by associations such as the World Health Organization (Atkin & Davies, 2000). While it is true that some energy goes towards growth and maturation, it is not likely that that has changed from 2% of TEE. Gable & Lutz found that 20% of children ages 8-16 exercise vigorously twice per week or less. A 1998 study shows that 67% of children in the same age group watch over 2 hours of television per day. Not surprisingly, it has also been determined that leaner children spend less time watching television than heavier children (Jonides, Buschbacher, & Barlow, 2002).
A major influence on a child's eating and fitness habits is school. Of the 53.2 million school age children in the United States, 27 million participate in the National School Lunch program. School lunches provide on average one-third the Recommended Daily Allowances for most nutrients, but contain excessive amounts of fat, saturated fat and sodium (Seo, Hiemstra & Boushey, 2003). The school systems have a lot of potential to create lunches for children that will provide adequate vitamins and minerals and acceptable amounts of all the macro nutrients. Schools can help combat obesity in other ways as well. The amount of physical education taught in schools is decreasing. This may very well be the only physical activity some students participate in at all.
Education can increase knowledge about food and exercise, but may not change behavior. In a study by Blom-Hoffman & DuPaul in 2003, students who received a nutrition education class over a 13-week period showed improvement on a post-test nutrition examination, but showed no remarkable change in behavior. Role models, especially parents and teachers, are a huge influence on a child's lifestyle, including diet and exercise habits. Children ages 4-7 who have parents that are physically active are nearly six times more likely to be physically active than children with parents who are not physically active (Hodges 2003). In today's busy society where both parents work full-time, fresh meals are often exchanged for processed or fast food; both of which usually contain high amounts of sodium, fat and calories and little amounts of vitamin-rich fruits and vegetables. Regular consumption of these high-calorie meals, along with minuscule amounts of physical activity, creates a large amount of energy left to be stored as fat. Habits like these are formed during childhood and the overweight child becomes an obese adult. The longer these habits are practiced, the more difficult it becomes to make the changes necessary to transform the lifestyle into a healthier one.
There is not one specific factor that causes obesity in children, but a combination of lifestyle choices that result in excessive amounts of energy being consumed compared to the low amount of energy expended. There is no question that being severely overweight as a child leads to health complications. In order to decrease the prevalence of obesity, people must be educated at an early age of the benefits of healthy food selection, and good habits must be formed regarding exercise and activity. Attention must be paid the the total amount of calories consumed, especially from beverages, and more effort must be placed on choosing nutrient-dense foods. Daily physical activity is a must. Efforts must be made by role models such as parents and teachers to encourage healthy lifestyles both through education and example.
Saturday, January 19, 2008
Why Breakfast is One of the Three Most Important Meals of the Day
This article is included in the web site of the U.N. Global Action on Aging organization in NY.
It has come to my attention that many of you do not eat breakfast, for a myriad of reasons. Please take the time to read about why you should not skip this meal, no matter what your excuses may be.
The body expects to be refueled a few times a day, starting with a healthy breakfast. When meals are skipped, the body misses out on tons of nutrients and energy in the form of calories. When the body consistently is deprived of these essentials, it thinks that you are out in the wild and food is scarce, so it slows down your metabolism so your body can burn less fat and hoards fat from your next meal so you have more energy in the reserves to survive the “fast”.
A lot of people skip breakfast because they think it’s an easy way to lose weight. This could not be further from the truth. Eating breakfast is actually good for weight loss. Studies have shown that people who eat breakfast every day are a third less likely to be obese than those who skip the meal. In addition, they were half as likely to have blood sugar problems, which increase the risk of developing diabetes or having high cholesterol-- both of which are risk factors for heart disease. Other studies point to a connection between skipping breakfast with weight gain and memory impairment in adults of all ages. It also has been shown to help people start their day thinking more clearly and in a better mood, and I can tell you that no one at Bykota Fitness Center wants a grouchy stupid hungry old person working out there.
Eating first thing in the morning may help stabilize blood sugar levels, which regulate appetite and energy. Many people find that when skipping breakfast, they are ravenous by lunchtime and end up consuming more calories later in the day. The proper way to fuel both your body and your mind is to spread your calories throughout the day. By doing this, you are assuring your body that there is a plethora of food available and you can provide it with constant energy, so your body doesn’t need to hold onto fat and it can speed up your metabolism again, accelerating fat loss and increasing energy.
Studies show that people who eat breakfast — especially a healthy breakfast — are more likely to:
· Consume more vitamins and minerals and less fat and cholesterol during the day
· Have more strength and endurance
· Have better concentration and be more productive throughout the morning
· Control their weight
· Have lower cholesterol, which reduces the risk of heart disease
Some people believe that working out on an empty stomach increases the amount of fat you burn. Studies show that fat burning does not begin until about 20 minutes into your workout, so if you’re working out with an empty fuel tank, your body will use other sources of energy to keep you going, including muscle. So while you may lose weight by working out before eating, you are losing the muscle that you are working so hard to gain and maintain, especially if your workouts do not last much longer than 20 minutes.
There are some other benefits to eating before your workout:
· It can boost recovery and strength gains
· It can help you sustain longer, more intense workouts
· It can help you avoid low blood sugar, which can make you feel dizzy or nauseous
· It can make your workouts more enjoyable (since you're not thinking about eating the whole time)
· You will not have to listen to Paula yell at you
So now that you’re convinced that it’s healthier and wiser to eat breakfast every day, let’s talk about what to eat. While eating a less-healthy breakfast is better than eating nothing at all most of the time, here are some suggestions about how to get the most out of your meal.
First, let’s examine why we shouldn’t hit up McDonald’s for a sausage egg and cheese on a croissant artery-clogging death meal. Research found that those who consume one high-fat meal per day, specifically breakfast, are more prone to suffer the physical consequences of stress than those who eat a low fat meal. Read: very bad for those of you already dealing with high blood pressure. After a fatty meal, arteries lose their ability to expand in response to an increase in blood flow, with the effect peaking four to six hours after eating -- just in time for the next meal. So those of you with coronary disease, you may actually increase your risk of a cardiac event during the 4-6 hours after you eat a high-fat meal like the croissantwich. If you choose to do this anyway, please do not come into the Fitness Center during this 4-6 hour period of increased risk.
The breakfast that is most commonly considered the healthiest is a serving of whole-grain cereal, non-fat milk, and a fruit. Ideally, the cereal should have more than 3g of fiber and less than 4g of sugar, 200mg of sodium, and 2g of fat per serving. If cereal is not your favorite, some other healthy options include bagels with peanut butter or cream cheese, oatmeal, yoghurt, eggs or egg-white omelets, and whole wheat toast. Make sure you pay attention to serving sizes so you are not overdoing it calorie-wise.
The bottom line is to aim for a variety of foods with plenty of fiber and protein to keep you full and energized until lunchtime. Include some carbohydrates for fuel and a little bit of fat, preferably the healthy unsaturated kind, and you’re off to a great start.
It has come to my attention that many of you do not eat breakfast, for a myriad of reasons. Please take the time to read about why you should not skip this meal, no matter what your excuses may be.
The body expects to be refueled a few times a day, starting with a healthy breakfast. When meals are skipped, the body misses out on tons of nutrients and energy in the form of calories. When the body consistently is deprived of these essentials, it thinks that you are out in the wild and food is scarce, so it slows down your metabolism so your body can burn less fat and hoards fat from your next meal so you have more energy in the reserves to survive the “fast”.
A lot of people skip breakfast because they think it’s an easy way to lose weight. This could not be further from the truth. Eating breakfast is actually good for weight loss. Studies have shown that people who eat breakfast every day are a third less likely to be obese than those who skip the meal. In addition, they were half as likely to have blood sugar problems, which increase the risk of developing diabetes or having high cholesterol-- both of which are risk factors for heart disease. Other studies point to a connection between skipping breakfast with weight gain and memory impairment in adults of all ages. It also has been shown to help people start their day thinking more clearly and in a better mood, and I can tell you that no one at Bykota Fitness Center wants a grouchy stupid hungry old person working out there.
Eating first thing in the morning may help stabilize blood sugar levels, which regulate appetite and energy. Many people find that when skipping breakfast, they are ravenous by lunchtime and end up consuming more calories later in the day. The proper way to fuel both your body and your mind is to spread your calories throughout the day. By doing this, you are assuring your body that there is a plethora of food available and you can provide it with constant energy, so your body doesn’t need to hold onto fat and it can speed up your metabolism again, accelerating fat loss and increasing energy.
Studies show that people who eat breakfast — especially a healthy breakfast — are more likely to:
· Consume more vitamins and minerals and less fat and cholesterol during the day
· Have more strength and endurance
· Have better concentration and be more productive throughout the morning
· Control their weight
· Have lower cholesterol, which reduces the risk of heart disease
Some people believe that working out on an empty stomach increases the amount of fat you burn. Studies show that fat burning does not begin until about 20 minutes into your workout, so if you’re working out with an empty fuel tank, your body will use other sources of energy to keep you going, including muscle. So while you may lose weight by working out before eating, you are losing the muscle that you are working so hard to gain and maintain, especially if your workouts do not last much longer than 20 minutes.
There are some other benefits to eating before your workout:
· It can boost recovery and strength gains
· It can help you sustain longer, more intense workouts
· It can help you avoid low blood sugar, which can make you feel dizzy or nauseous
· It can make your workouts more enjoyable (since you're not thinking about eating the whole time)
· You will not have to listen to Paula yell at you
So now that you’re convinced that it’s healthier and wiser to eat breakfast every day, let’s talk about what to eat. While eating a less-healthy breakfast is better than eating nothing at all most of the time, here are some suggestions about how to get the most out of your meal.
First, let’s examine why we shouldn’t hit up McDonald’s for a sausage egg and cheese on a croissant artery-clogging death meal. Research found that those who consume one high-fat meal per day, specifically breakfast, are more prone to suffer the physical consequences of stress than those who eat a low fat meal. Read: very bad for those of you already dealing with high blood pressure. After a fatty meal, arteries lose their ability to expand in response to an increase in blood flow, with the effect peaking four to six hours after eating -- just in time for the next meal. So those of you with coronary disease, you may actually increase your risk of a cardiac event during the 4-6 hours after you eat a high-fat meal like the croissantwich. If you choose to do this anyway, please do not come into the Fitness Center during this 4-6 hour period of increased risk.
The breakfast that is most commonly considered the healthiest is a serving of whole-grain cereal, non-fat milk, and a fruit. Ideally, the cereal should have more than 3g of fiber and less than 4g of sugar, 200mg of sodium, and 2g of fat per serving. If cereal is not your favorite, some other healthy options include bagels with peanut butter or cream cheese, oatmeal, yoghurt, eggs or egg-white omelets, and whole wheat toast. Make sure you pay attention to serving sizes so you are not overdoing it calorie-wise.
The bottom line is to aim for a variety of foods with plenty of fiber and protein to keep you full and energized until lunchtime. Include some carbohydrates for fuel and a little bit of fat, preferably the healthy unsaturated kind, and you’re off to a great start.
Staph Attack
a poem by Paula Butler
-----------------------
Gather ‘round and hear this, ye children so fair
For a tale so much older than time.
Listen closely to me , for your health, if you dare-
I’ll try my best to keep tempo and rhyme.
There lives deep inside your inner nasal wall
An evil Staphylococcus aureus.
And, trust me, there’s nothing like it at all
In any dictionary or thesaurus.
It starts out innocently as a child,
Snuggled contentedly inside your schnoz.
But it soon grows restless, mean and wild,
Struggling to escape its resident laws.
It patiently awaits the perfect chance,
A ride that will bring it down south.
A lone finger enters- oh, see the Staph dance!
As it is carried straight into the mouth!
Staph loves the moist, such a Heavenly clime,
He is giddy and brimming with glee.
The finger brings more and more every time,
Our Staph is in good company.
Now, children don’t fear, what I tell you is true
For it happens both near and afar.
What comes next is quite graphic, so listen- please do!
Or you can go wait in the car.
They make their way down to the stomach and such,
Stopping several times on the way.
The lungs, liver, spleen- Oh, this is too much!
But the Staph, how they love to play!
At every pit stop, they leave something behind-
A pathogenic trail of crumbs.
An abscess filled with pus and such kind,
This can’t be cured with no Tums!
They infect every corner, every small nook and cranny,
Causing unpleasantnesses like endocarditis.
You won’t have the strength to get off of your fanny
Once you’re infected with septic arthritis.
But it can do lots more harm, if you don’t take some care-
You can end up with pneumonia or worse.
Just try to fight it, if you bother to dare,
Make every effort to get rid of this curse!
It’s got leukocidin and toxins, artillery galore
To destroy your body’s defense.
Toxic Shock Syndrome will even the score,
So wasting your time? It just doesn’t make sense.
Use all the strength your feeble body can muster,
The Staph just won’t leave you alone.
You simply cannot get rid of that mean grape-like cluster,
But only see every day how it’s grown.
You can use special soap, the antistaphylococcal kind,
And paint yourself white with the cream.
Even with antibiotics, the Staph never mind,
Though with time, they’re not bad as they seemed.
So, now heed my lesson, you know where Staph grows,
Don’t cause me to repeat it.
You know it’s not polite to pick at your nose,
And certainly, don’t ever eat it!
-----------------------
Gather ‘round and hear this, ye children so fair
For a tale so much older than time.
Listen closely to me , for your health, if you dare-
I’ll try my best to keep tempo and rhyme.
There lives deep inside your inner nasal wall
An evil Staphylococcus aureus.
And, trust me, there’s nothing like it at all
In any dictionary or thesaurus.
It starts out innocently as a child,
Snuggled contentedly inside your schnoz.
But it soon grows restless, mean and wild,
Struggling to escape its resident laws.
It patiently awaits the perfect chance,
A ride that will bring it down south.
A lone finger enters- oh, see the Staph dance!
As it is carried straight into the mouth!
Staph loves the moist, such a Heavenly clime,
He is giddy and brimming with glee.
The finger brings more and more every time,
Our Staph is in good company.
Now, children don’t fear, what I tell you is true
For it happens both near and afar.
What comes next is quite graphic, so listen- please do!
Or you can go wait in the car.
They make their way down to the stomach and such,
Stopping several times on the way.
The lungs, liver, spleen- Oh, this is too much!
But the Staph, how they love to play!
At every pit stop, they leave something behind-
A pathogenic trail of crumbs.
An abscess filled with pus and such kind,
This can’t be cured with no Tums!
They infect every corner, every small nook and cranny,
Causing unpleasantnesses like endocarditis.
You won’t have the strength to get off of your fanny
Once you’re infected with septic arthritis.
But it can do lots more harm, if you don’t take some care-
You can end up with pneumonia or worse.
Just try to fight it, if you bother to dare,
Make every effort to get rid of this curse!
It’s got leukocidin and toxins, artillery galore
To destroy your body’s defense.
Toxic Shock Syndrome will even the score,
So wasting your time? It just doesn’t make sense.
Use all the strength your feeble body can muster,
The Staph just won’t leave you alone.
You simply cannot get rid of that mean grape-like cluster,
But only see every day how it’s grown.
You can use special soap, the antistaphylococcal kind,
And paint yourself white with the cream.
Even with antibiotics, the Staph never mind,
Though with time, they’re not bad as they seemed.
So, now heed my lesson, you know where Staph grows,
Don’t cause me to repeat it.
You know it’s not polite to pick at your nose,
And certainly, don’t ever eat it!
Dance as Sport?
Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972, passed to prevent females from being discriminated against in sports in educational settings, has been the topic of much debate since its passage. One of the aspects of this piece of legislation that we discussed in class is whether in its intentions of bringing women up to the same level as men in athletics, in terms of involvement and perception in the world of sport, it has also limited the opportunities for men in sports in order to maintain equality. Compliance with Title IX requires that in schools that receive financial aid, the ratio of male to female athletes at a school must mirror the ratio of males to females in the student body at that school. In order to meet these requirements, schools incorporate gender quotas into their sports department. In class we discussed several articles on whether dance and cheerleading should be considered a sport. I was very interested in this discussion because I have danced my entire life, and I never felt that it was taken seriously when compared to other sports. (I believe that cheerleading should also be considered a sport, but since I never was a cheerleader, I can’t speak firsthand about it, so this paper will be mostly about dance.)
The first step in determining whether an activity may be considered a sport is to examine the definition of sport. While some authorities maintain that sport is indefinable, Edwards formally defined sport as:
Activities having formally recorded histories and traditions, stressing physical exertion through competition within limits set in explicit and formal rules governing role and position relationships, carried out by actors who represent or are part of formally organized associations having the goal of achieving valued tangibles or intangibles through defeating opposing groups (Leonard 1998).
Attempts have been made to separate sport from play, and some distinguishing features of sport, according to Luschen, are that the activity is physical and excludes sedentary activities like chess or cards, and the emphasis is on the competition aspect is central (Leonard 1998). A co-worker considers any activity aired on ESPN a sport. Using any of these definitions, one could make a strong argument labeling dance (all types) as a sport.
There is no doubt that dance involves rigorous training schedules and high levels of physical exertion. Dancers need tremendous amounts of endurance, strength, and flexibility to perform their routines. Dancers on the Lady Blasters (the dance team for the Baltimore Blast), like many other dance teams, were required to spend at least 3 days per week in the gym doing strength training as part of their contract. When competition time nears, practice sessions become longer and more frequent. Some dancers spend hours in the studio practicing with others, then go home and practice even more. Unlike other sports, every minute detail of a dancer’s body is under scrutiny during a competition, from her smile to the position of her finger tips. Her timing must be accurate and her movements must be coordinated and match those of the other members of her team. It sounds to me like dance competition is more critical than basketball, or many of the other more traditional sports. The goals of dance teams, during performances or competitions, include performing the routine(s) in perfect synchronization, without any mistakes, at the highest level of skill they are capable of. As the team progresses, more difficult choreography is incorporated into the routine.
Although I never competed in ballroom dance, as a ballroom dance instructor, I saw how years and years of training go into preparing for one competition. The competitions are fierce and again, every last detail is scrutinized in competitions so the slightest error could result in a poor rating. My own dance instructor was partnered with his wife, and they were both at the studio 12 hours per day or more teaching for 8 and rehearsing in between and after appointments. I trained with them for 2 years and worked with them for 1 and by the time I left, they still felt they were not ready to compete.
I didn’t spend much time competing in traditional dance. I participated more for the enjoyment, training at a private studio. I started when I was three, and continued through high school. Unfortunately, dance was not offered at any of my schools, either in the form of a class or a team. When asked if I participated in any sports, I would always answer that I took dance. The usual reaction to that was something to the effect of “but no real sports?” In high school I joined the volleyball and cross country teams not only because I enjoyed them, but because the importance of involvement in sports when applying to colleges was stressed, and I was given the impression that dance would not cut it. I never understood why. I would be willing to bet that I spent more time in the average week going over routines and working on my form and flexibility than any football player in my school. I had to buy gear (shoes, leotards, etc.), sell tickets to performances, and stick to a strict practice schedule. I had to get along with the other dancers in my class and cooperate with them to coordinate moves. I needed a certain level of physical strength and endurance to perform my best. The only difference is that my school didn’t support it.
Reference:
Leonard, W. A Sociological Perspective of Sport. 5th ed. Macmillan, 1998. pp. 12-14
The first step in determining whether an activity may be considered a sport is to examine the definition of sport. While some authorities maintain that sport is indefinable, Edwards formally defined sport as:
Activities having formally recorded histories and traditions, stressing physical exertion through competition within limits set in explicit and formal rules governing role and position relationships, carried out by actors who represent or are part of formally organized associations having the goal of achieving valued tangibles or intangibles through defeating opposing groups (Leonard 1998).
Attempts have been made to separate sport from play, and some distinguishing features of sport, according to Luschen, are that the activity is physical and excludes sedentary activities like chess or cards, and the emphasis is on the competition aspect is central (Leonard 1998). A co-worker considers any activity aired on ESPN a sport. Using any of these definitions, one could make a strong argument labeling dance (all types) as a sport.
There is no doubt that dance involves rigorous training schedules and high levels of physical exertion. Dancers need tremendous amounts of endurance, strength, and flexibility to perform their routines. Dancers on the Lady Blasters (the dance team for the Baltimore Blast), like many other dance teams, were required to spend at least 3 days per week in the gym doing strength training as part of their contract. When competition time nears, practice sessions become longer and more frequent. Some dancers spend hours in the studio practicing with others, then go home and practice even more. Unlike other sports, every minute detail of a dancer’s body is under scrutiny during a competition, from her smile to the position of her finger tips. Her timing must be accurate and her movements must be coordinated and match those of the other members of her team. It sounds to me like dance competition is more critical than basketball, or many of the other more traditional sports. The goals of dance teams, during performances or competitions, include performing the routine(s) in perfect synchronization, without any mistakes, at the highest level of skill they are capable of. As the team progresses, more difficult choreography is incorporated into the routine.
Although I never competed in ballroom dance, as a ballroom dance instructor, I saw how years and years of training go into preparing for one competition. The competitions are fierce and again, every last detail is scrutinized in competitions so the slightest error could result in a poor rating. My own dance instructor was partnered with his wife, and they were both at the studio 12 hours per day or more teaching for 8 and rehearsing in between and after appointments. I trained with them for 2 years and worked with them for 1 and by the time I left, they still felt they were not ready to compete.
I didn’t spend much time competing in traditional dance. I participated more for the enjoyment, training at a private studio. I started when I was three, and continued through high school. Unfortunately, dance was not offered at any of my schools, either in the form of a class or a team. When asked if I participated in any sports, I would always answer that I took dance. The usual reaction to that was something to the effect of “but no real sports?” In high school I joined the volleyball and cross country teams not only because I enjoyed them, but because the importance of involvement in sports when applying to colleges was stressed, and I was given the impression that dance would not cut it. I never understood why. I would be willing to bet that I spent more time in the average week going over routines and working on my form and flexibility than any football player in my school. I had to buy gear (shoes, leotards, etc.), sell tickets to performances, and stick to a strict practice schedule. I had to get along with the other dancers in my class and cooperate with them to coordinate moves. I needed a certain level of physical strength and endurance to perform my best. The only difference is that my school didn’t support it.
Reference:
Leonard, W. A Sociological Perspective of Sport. 5th ed. Macmillan, 1998. pp. 12-14
Restricting access to palatable foods affects children’s behavioral response, food selection, and intake.
Background:
Many parents restrict the diets of their children in the hopes that better food selections will be made if unhealthier items are not an option.
Objective:
To determine whether restricting access to a palatable food creates increased desire for and intake of that specific food.
Sample:
Experiment 1- 31 children between the ages of 3-5 attending day care at the Pennsylvania State University Child Development Laboratory, and their parents.
Experiment 2- 36 children between the ages of 3-6 attending day care at the Pennsylvania State University Child Development Laboratory, and their parents.
Methods:
The design consisted of 2 separate experiments containing an observation period, a phase where one food was restricted, and another observation period.
Experiment 1 – A food was chosen that the children did not favor or dislike. Two flavors of the same cookie bar were chosen as the control food and target food. Each participant was asked both before and after the restriction phase which bar they would prefer. Also, consumption of both flavors by each student was measured before and after the restriction phase. During the restriction phase, children’s comments and attempts to gain access to the restricted food were recorded.
Experiment 2 – A different food was chosen that the children did not favor or dislike. A survey was completed by the participants’ parents to determine the nature of their personal restriction on food intake. During the unrestricted phase, participants were allowed unlimited access to both foods. During the restricted phase, the participants were still allowed unlimited access to the control food, but were only allowed to eat the restricted food for 5 minutes out of 15 in the session.
Results:
Experiment 1 determined that restriction of a specific food, which the child didn’t favor or dislike, resulted in an increased desire for that food and more attempts to obtain it. This response was greater for boys than for girls. However, in the observation period following the restriction period, there was no significant effect of the restriction in terms of intake or selection of that food.
Experiment 2 determined that participants’ desire was also increased during the restricted period. The weight status of the children were positively related to parental restriction (the higher the restriction, the higher the child’s relative weight).
Discussion:
Parents tend to restrict the amount of foods high in sugar and fat in the diets of their children, but these experiments show that this restriction is accompanied by an increased desire for those restricted items. Children snack 2-3 times per day and these snacks make up as much as 25% of their energy intake. This research suggests that children who are perpetually restricted from certain food items will preferentially choose and eat the same foods that are being restricted when given the choice.
Article:
Fisher, J., & Birch, L. (1999) Restricting access to palatable foods affects children’s behavioral response, food selection, and intake. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 69, 1264-1272.
Many parents restrict the diets of their children in the hopes that better food selections will be made if unhealthier items are not an option.
Objective:
To determine whether restricting access to a palatable food creates increased desire for and intake of that specific food.
Sample:
Experiment 1- 31 children between the ages of 3-5 attending day care at the Pennsylvania State University Child Development Laboratory, and their parents.
Experiment 2- 36 children between the ages of 3-6 attending day care at the Pennsylvania State University Child Development Laboratory, and their parents.
Methods:
The design consisted of 2 separate experiments containing an observation period, a phase where one food was restricted, and another observation period.
Experiment 1 – A food was chosen that the children did not favor or dislike. Two flavors of the same cookie bar were chosen as the control food and target food. Each participant was asked both before and after the restriction phase which bar they would prefer. Also, consumption of both flavors by each student was measured before and after the restriction phase. During the restriction phase, children’s comments and attempts to gain access to the restricted food were recorded.
Experiment 2 – A different food was chosen that the children did not favor or dislike. A survey was completed by the participants’ parents to determine the nature of their personal restriction on food intake. During the unrestricted phase, participants were allowed unlimited access to both foods. During the restricted phase, the participants were still allowed unlimited access to the control food, but were only allowed to eat the restricted food for 5 minutes out of 15 in the session.
Results:
Experiment 1 determined that restriction of a specific food, which the child didn’t favor or dislike, resulted in an increased desire for that food and more attempts to obtain it. This response was greater for boys than for girls. However, in the observation period following the restriction period, there was no significant effect of the restriction in terms of intake or selection of that food.
Experiment 2 determined that participants’ desire was also increased during the restricted period. The weight status of the children were positively related to parental restriction (the higher the restriction, the higher the child’s relative weight).
Discussion:
Parents tend to restrict the amount of foods high in sugar and fat in the diets of their children, but these experiments show that this restriction is accompanied by an increased desire for those restricted items. Children snack 2-3 times per day and these snacks make up as much as 25% of their energy intake. This research suggests that children who are perpetually restricted from certain food items will preferentially choose and eat the same foods that are being restricted when given the choice.
Article:
Fisher, J., & Birch, L. (1999) Restricting access to palatable foods affects children’s behavioral response, food selection, and intake. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 69, 1264-1272.
Imagery As Motivation
Imagery is a wonderful tool for motivation. There are several types of imagery used in sport psychology. Internal imagery involves feeling and seeing as if one were actually doing the skill from that person’s own perspective. External imagery involves seeing what it looks like to do the skill, as if watching a videotape. I tend to use external imagery a lot when pushing myself during exercise. Some of my images are pretty ridiculous, but they work. For example, when I am running and I feel myself getting tired and wanting to stop, but I know I can keep going, I picture myself in a race with a group of my friends. We’re all running together and the person who runs the longest wins. I close my eyes and actually feel as if I am in this race. My competitive nature along with the high standards I hold for myself compel me to keep running until I have reached my goal. I picture myself as the last person running and all of my friends that I just beat are impressed with my physical prowess. That image is completely ridiculous because when I do run with friends, it’s for motivational support, and I can’t think of any situation where I would be running against my friends to see who could run the longest. But it works. When I picture this, I have yet to fall short of reaching my goal.
I visualize scenarios like these even when I’m not working out. I usually run in the evenings, and during the day I am psyching myself up for that night’s run by imagining myself beating my time or distance from the day before. I start to expect myself to perform better, and I find that I want to live up to these expectations and that shows in my performance. I actually see myself performing well and look forward to starting my run so I can live up to my imagination. Looking over my running log from the past month alone, my times and distances have increased dramatically.
I am a magazine junkie. I have seen many articles in my fitness magazines that suggest that a great way to help motivate yourself to stick to a weight loss program is to post photos of what you want to look like all around the house. The plan is that you will see these photos and the visual imagery of you looking like the photos will discourage you from giving up. Some people have even gone so far as to tape their faces onto a model’s body and post it on the refrigerator as a constant reminder of that they want to look like. I have to admit that before my wedding, I cut out a page from a magazine that had a model wearing my dress. Of course the model was beautiful and had a perfect (retouched?) figure. I also cut out a photo of a similarly beautiful and fit model on a beach wearing a bathing suit. I posted these pages on the lampshade next to my bed so they were the first things I saw when I woke up and the last things I saw before bed. Every day I imagined myself looking like the first model on my wedding day, then looking like the second on my honeymoon. I can’t guarantee that this method is what did it, but I did lose slightly over 10 lbs before my wedding. I think that these images helped me imagine how it would feel at these events, and that made it more real for me, and encouraged me to stick with my fitness program.
I used to work in a physical therapy office, and I could tell that the patients who make the best recovery are those with positive attitudes, who are probably doing a lot of mental work in addition to the physical work. The patients who come in with the attitude that they can see themselves running again after a total knee replacement, or bowling after rotator cuff surgery, are the ones who need less time in rehab before they are able to be released to a home exercise program. The patients who come in and feel sorry for themselves because they hurt and they feel that their condition is never going to improve are the ones who end up in therapy for a long time due to slow progress. I strongly believe that in order to achieve something you really want, you have to work hard at it and constantly remind yourself of what you are working for by seeing yourself achieving it.
Exercise as a Treatment for Depression
There is an illness that affects over one-third of American population (more than 19 million people) each year. Fifteen percent of its victims will commit suicide, yet 80% of its victims do not seek help despite the fact that this illness is treatable. If left untreated, this illness will be the second largest killer after heart disease by 2020, and has been shown in studies to contribute to fatal coronary disease (NIMH, 1999). The illness is depression, and it is a growing concern in America. Many treatments have been utilized to combat depression, including medications and psychotherapy, but there is much debate about whether these methods actually work, and what exactly about them changes mood. More recently, exercise has been studied as a treatment for depression, and the findings have been optimistic.
Defined as “a disorder of the brain and body’s ability to biologically create and balance a normal range of thoughts, emotions, and energy” (NIMH, 1999), depression is caused by unusual levels of chemicals, such as the neurotransmitters beta-endorphin, serotonin, and dopamine. Depression can vary in terms of severity. The exogenous “normal” depressed mood is the least serious level, since it is usually a reaction to a disturbing event, and more than likely the sufferer will recover on his or her own. Dysthymia is the next level, and is a mild endogenous depression with symptoms including chronic depressed moods and low self-esteem. Usually the sufferer is dealing with adjustment disorders and is less likely to recover without treatment. Major depressive disorder is characterized by despair and hopelessness, the inability to get out of bed, unusual appetite, and sometimes contemplation of suicide (NIMH, 1999). Manic depression is characterized by bouts of depression followed by bursts of excessive energy.
Due to the varying levels and types of depression, there are a variety of remedies available to provide customized treatment for each type of depression. The two most common treatments for depression are medication and counseling. Antidepressants have been around since the 1950’s and boast that they can raise one’s mood 60% to 80% when used properly (http://www.depression.com). However, Kirsch and Sapirstein found in a study done on Prozac, a popular antidepressant, that “approximately one quarter of the drug response is due to the administration of an active medication, one half is a placebo effect, and the remaining quarter is due to other nonspecific factors” (1998). In one recent trial, which compared the effectiveness of the herb St. John’s wort to that of Zoloft, St. John’s wort alleviated depression in 24 percent of study participants, compared with 25 percent for Zoloft. However, the placebo reportedly cured depression in 32 percent of participants (Mercola, 2002). Findings like these indicate that the effects of prescription drugs on depression may be overestimated, and largely due to the placebo effect. According to a study conducted by the National Institute of Mental Health, 55% of subjects suffering from depression reported a notable improvement in mood after 16 weeks of psychotherapy (1999). Cognitive behavior therapy is a relatively new approach where the therapist works directly with the patient to identify where his or her thought process differs from normal, and find ways to reduce the amount of negative thoughts. Studies done on therapy indicate that cognitive behavior therapy is more effective in treating depression than medications alone, but a combination of the two are ideal (Blackburn et al., 1981).
More recently, exercise has become a new alternative to more traditional methods of treating depression. The most basic reasoning behind this idea is that exercise has positive effects on one’s mind and body. For most people, losing weight or improving their physical appearance is a form of winning or success. Winning at anything improves mood, releases hormones like endorphins and reinforces additional successful behaviors. Exercise increases self-confidence, and produces a feeling of mastery and accomplishment. In a meta-analysis of 51 studies, Spence finds that an increase in self-esteem is linked to a decrease in depression (Spence et al., 1998). Participating in group exercise allows a person suffering from depression to engage in a more social atmosphere, which can have a therapeutic effect. In addition to its emotional and social effects, exercise also is shown to have a biological effect on lowering depression. The main cause of depression is unusual levels of neurotransmitters, including beta-endorphins and serotonin. Beta-endorphins are part of the mood regulating chemicals in the brain that can lower the feeling of pain and even induce a state of euphoria similar to the state known as “runner’s high.” Serotonin is responsible for the availability of neurotransmitters at receptor sites; therefore, there must be a balanced level of serotonin to maintain a stabilized mood (Moore, 1982). Several theories have been developed that attempt to explain how physical activity affects mood. The monoamine hypothesis, as explained by Ransford in 1982, describes how exercise increases the brain’s eminergic synaptic transmission, which directly affects mood. The endorphin hypothesis has been proven in its theory that extended exercise increases the release of endorphins, but little scientific evidence has been discovered to correlate this increase with mood (Moore, 1982). In fact, one study compared elite runners with meditators in terms of mood and the levels of circulating beta-endorphin and corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) following their respective exercises. Mood and CRH were elevated after both exercises, but only the runners experienced an increase in beta-endorphin, which suggests that it is not required for mood elevation (Wankel, 1993). Comparatively little research has been done to date on the exact effects of exercise to raise levels of these neurotransmitters, but scientists are hypothesizing that biologically, exercise may raise them enough to be considered a less expensive, yet beneficial alternative to medications and therapy.
Most of the research to date has studied the psychological effect of exercise on depression. According to Freemont & Craighead (1987), there are three basic theories that explain the relationship between exercise and depression. The first is the distraction hypothesis, which is based on the idea that anything that diverts a person’s attention from painful stimuli will lead to an improved mood after exercising. Russell et al. (2003) did a study to determine whether exercisers subjected to a distraction during exercise would report greater post-exercise mood improvement compared to exercisers without the distraction, and found that there was no significant difference between the experiment and control groups. However, Berger and Motl (2000), in their description of the distraction hypothesis, indicated that personal enjoyment of the activity is an important criterion, and the distractions in the above study may not have been enjoyable. A more successful demonstration of this theory would be Bahrke’s and Morgan’s experiment in 1978 where distractions from daily stressors were decreased through exercise. The second theory, the self-efficiency theory, is based on the idea that one must have the confidence that he or she can perform a certain behavior. The third theory, the mastery hypothesis, suggests that depression an individual is experiencing will decrease as that person uses exercise as a means of taking control. The activity training hypothesis suggests that participation in a variety of enjoyable activities exposes the individual to positive reinforcers that increase positive cognitions and enhance mood (Lewisohn, 1974).
Whether these theories apply or not, the majority of studies done on the psychological benefits of exercise as a treatment for depression conclude that it does indeed have a positive effect. The questions that remain are what type of exercise to do, how much exercise is needed to produce a favorable response, and at what level of intensity. Studies show that equally positive benefits can be obtained through aerobic activity, strength, or flexibility training. In a trial by Doyle et al. (1987), 40 depressed women were randomly assigned to one of the following exercise programs for eight weeks: running, weight-lifting, or a waiting list. Members of both exercise groups were less depressed by the end of the 8 weeks than the control group, and there was no difference in results in terms of the amount by which the depression was reduced. Research indicates that significant improvements can be achieved after as little as 5 weeks of aerobic or nonaerobic exercise of low to moderate intensity (50% of maximum heart rate) lasting 20-60 minutes per thrice-weekly session. Additionally, these improvements can be maintained for up to a year after, especially if some level of activity is maintained (Doyne et al., 1987). According to Artal (1998), when prescribing exercise as a treatment for depression, one must anticipate barriers, such as lack of energy and feelings of hopelessness and worthlessness, that are common in depression sufferers. The plan must be feasible and expectations should be realistic and attainable. The activity should be pleasurable, with specific goals stated. Compliance should be the ultimate goal, not intensity or time. In fact, a study on healthy female swimmers found that their levels of depression actually increased when their coach drastically raised the intensity of their routine (O’Connor, Morgan, Raglin, et al., 1989). Another important concern is whether the patient is being treated concurrently with medication, since some of the older medications contain side effects like orthostatic hypertension and sedation that may conflict with the patient’s ability to perform aerobic exercises.
Although more research obviously needs to be done on exactly which aspect of exercise enhances mood and lowers depression, there is no doubt that a correlation exists between the two. In a study published in the British Journal of Sports Medicine, the therapeutic benefits of aerobic exercise were seen after 10 days, as opposed to the 2-6 weeks it takes for the average antidepressant drugs to have an effect (2001). Using exercise as a treatment for depression may be more beneficial due to its low cost (compared to prescribed medications and therapy sessions) and the numerous side effects it can produce, including increased self-esteem, a more pleasing physical appearance, a feeling of mastery and control, and many others. If 41% of depressed women are too embarrassed to seek help, then an exercise program may be the key to alleviating the depression while maintaining their privacy (NIMH, 1999).
References
Artal, M. (1998) Exercise Against Depression. The Physician and Sports Medicine, 26(10).
Bahrke, M.S., & Morgan, W.P. (1978) Anxiety reduction following exercise: mediation. Cognitive Therapy Research, 2(4), 323-33.
Blackburn, I. M., Bishop, S., Glen, A.I.M., Whalley, L.J., & Christie, J.E. (1981). The efficacy of cognitive therapy in depression: A treatment trial using cognitive therapy and pharmacotherapy, each alone and in combination. British Journal of Psychiatry, 139, 181-189.
Berger, B.G., & Motl, R.W. (2000) Exercise and mood: A selective review and synthesis of research employing the Profile of Mood States. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 12, 69-92.
Doyne, E.J., Ossip-Klein, F.J., Bowman, E.D., Osborn, K.M., McDougall-Wilson, I.B., & Neimeyer, R.A. (1987).
Running versus weight lifting in the treatment of depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55, 748-754.
Freemont, J., & Craighead, L.W. (1987) Aerobic exercise and cognitive therapy in the treatment of dysphoric moods. Cognitive Therapy Research, 11, 241-251.
Kirsch, A., & Sapirstein, G. (1998) Listening to Prozac but hearing placebo: A meta-analysis of antidepressant medication. Prevention & Treatment, 1.
Lewisohn, P.M. (1974) Clinical and theoretical aspects of depression. Innovative treatment methods in psychopathology. 63-120.
Mercola, J. (2002) Sugar pills work as well as antidepressants. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology, 5(3), 193-7.
Moore, M. (1982) Endorphins and exercise: a puzzling relationship. Physician Sports Medicine, 10(2), 111-114.
National Institute of Mental Health (1999) The numbers count: Mental illness in America. Science on Out Minds Fact Sheet Series. Accessed April 2004. Netscape: http://www.nimh.nih.gov/publicar/numbers.cfm
O’Connel, P.J., Morgan, W.P., Raglin, J.S., et al. (1989) Mood state and salivary cortisol levels following overtraining in female swimmers. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 14(4). 303-310.
Ransford, C.P. (1982) A role for amines in the antidepressant effect of exercise: a review. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 4(1), 1-10.
Spence JC, Poon P, Dyck P. (1997) The effect of physical-activity participation on self-concept: a meta-analysis. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology. 19-109.
Wankel LM. (1993) The importance of enjoyment to adherence and psychological benefits from physical activity. International Journal of Sports Psychology, 24(2), 151-169.
Defined as “a disorder of the brain and body’s ability to biologically create and balance a normal range of thoughts, emotions, and energy” (NIMH, 1999), depression is caused by unusual levels of chemicals, such as the neurotransmitters beta-endorphin, serotonin, and dopamine. Depression can vary in terms of severity. The exogenous “normal” depressed mood is the least serious level, since it is usually a reaction to a disturbing event, and more than likely the sufferer will recover on his or her own. Dysthymia is the next level, and is a mild endogenous depression with symptoms including chronic depressed moods and low self-esteem. Usually the sufferer is dealing with adjustment disorders and is less likely to recover without treatment. Major depressive disorder is characterized by despair and hopelessness, the inability to get out of bed, unusual appetite, and sometimes contemplation of suicide (NIMH, 1999). Manic depression is characterized by bouts of depression followed by bursts of excessive energy.
Due to the varying levels and types of depression, there are a variety of remedies available to provide customized treatment for each type of depression. The two most common treatments for depression are medication and counseling. Antidepressants have been around since the 1950’s and boast that they can raise one’s mood 60% to 80% when used properly (http://www.depression.com). However, Kirsch and Sapirstein found in a study done on Prozac, a popular antidepressant, that “approximately one quarter of the drug response is due to the administration of an active medication, one half is a placebo effect, and the remaining quarter is due to other nonspecific factors” (1998). In one recent trial, which compared the effectiveness of the herb St. John’s wort to that of Zoloft, St. John’s wort alleviated depression in 24 percent of study participants, compared with 25 percent for Zoloft. However, the placebo reportedly cured depression in 32 percent of participants (Mercola, 2002). Findings like these indicate that the effects of prescription drugs on depression may be overestimated, and largely due to the placebo effect. According to a study conducted by the National Institute of Mental Health, 55% of subjects suffering from depression reported a notable improvement in mood after 16 weeks of psychotherapy (1999). Cognitive behavior therapy is a relatively new approach where the therapist works directly with the patient to identify where his or her thought process differs from normal, and find ways to reduce the amount of negative thoughts. Studies done on therapy indicate that cognitive behavior therapy is more effective in treating depression than medications alone, but a combination of the two are ideal (Blackburn et al., 1981).
More recently, exercise has become a new alternative to more traditional methods of treating depression. The most basic reasoning behind this idea is that exercise has positive effects on one’s mind and body. For most people, losing weight or improving their physical appearance is a form of winning or success. Winning at anything improves mood, releases hormones like endorphins and reinforces additional successful behaviors. Exercise increases self-confidence, and produces a feeling of mastery and accomplishment. In a meta-analysis of 51 studies, Spence finds that an increase in self-esteem is linked to a decrease in depression (Spence et al., 1998). Participating in group exercise allows a person suffering from depression to engage in a more social atmosphere, which can have a therapeutic effect. In addition to its emotional and social effects, exercise also is shown to have a biological effect on lowering depression. The main cause of depression is unusual levels of neurotransmitters, including beta-endorphins and serotonin. Beta-endorphins are part of the mood regulating chemicals in the brain that can lower the feeling of pain and even induce a state of euphoria similar to the state known as “runner’s high.” Serotonin is responsible for the availability of neurotransmitters at receptor sites; therefore, there must be a balanced level of serotonin to maintain a stabilized mood (Moore, 1982). Several theories have been developed that attempt to explain how physical activity affects mood. The monoamine hypothesis, as explained by Ransford in 1982, describes how exercise increases the brain’s eminergic synaptic transmission, which directly affects mood. The endorphin hypothesis has been proven in its theory that extended exercise increases the release of endorphins, but little scientific evidence has been discovered to correlate this increase with mood (Moore, 1982). In fact, one study compared elite runners with meditators in terms of mood and the levels of circulating beta-endorphin and corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) following their respective exercises. Mood and CRH were elevated after both exercises, but only the runners experienced an increase in beta-endorphin, which suggests that it is not required for mood elevation (Wankel, 1993). Comparatively little research has been done to date on the exact effects of exercise to raise levels of these neurotransmitters, but scientists are hypothesizing that biologically, exercise may raise them enough to be considered a less expensive, yet beneficial alternative to medications and therapy.
Most of the research to date has studied the psychological effect of exercise on depression. According to Freemont & Craighead (1987), there are three basic theories that explain the relationship between exercise and depression. The first is the distraction hypothesis, which is based on the idea that anything that diverts a person’s attention from painful stimuli will lead to an improved mood after exercising. Russell et al. (2003) did a study to determine whether exercisers subjected to a distraction during exercise would report greater post-exercise mood improvement compared to exercisers without the distraction, and found that there was no significant difference between the experiment and control groups. However, Berger and Motl (2000), in their description of the distraction hypothesis, indicated that personal enjoyment of the activity is an important criterion, and the distractions in the above study may not have been enjoyable. A more successful demonstration of this theory would be Bahrke’s and Morgan’s experiment in 1978 where distractions from daily stressors were decreased through exercise. The second theory, the self-efficiency theory, is based on the idea that one must have the confidence that he or she can perform a certain behavior. The third theory, the mastery hypothesis, suggests that depression an individual is experiencing will decrease as that person uses exercise as a means of taking control. The activity training hypothesis suggests that participation in a variety of enjoyable activities exposes the individual to positive reinforcers that increase positive cognitions and enhance mood (Lewisohn, 1974).
Whether these theories apply or not, the majority of studies done on the psychological benefits of exercise as a treatment for depression conclude that it does indeed have a positive effect. The questions that remain are what type of exercise to do, how much exercise is needed to produce a favorable response, and at what level of intensity. Studies show that equally positive benefits can be obtained through aerobic activity, strength, or flexibility training. In a trial by Doyle et al. (1987), 40 depressed women were randomly assigned to one of the following exercise programs for eight weeks: running, weight-lifting, or a waiting list. Members of both exercise groups were less depressed by the end of the 8 weeks than the control group, and there was no difference in results in terms of the amount by which the depression was reduced. Research indicates that significant improvements can be achieved after as little as 5 weeks of aerobic or nonaerobic exercise of low to moderate intensity (50% of maximum heart rate) lasting 20-60 minutes per thrice-weekly session. Additionally, these improvements can be maintained for up to a year after, especially if some level of activity is maintained (Doyne et al., 1987). According to Artal (1998), when prescribing exercise as a treatment for depression, one must anticipate barriers, such as lack of energy and feelings of hopelessness and worthlessness, that are common in depression sufferers. The plan must be feasible and expectations should be realistic and attainable. The activity should be pleasurable, with specific goals stated. Compliance should be the ultimate goal, not intensity or time. In fact, a study on healthy female swimmers found that their levels of depression actually increased when their coach drastically raised the intensity of their routine (O’Connor, Morgan, Raglin, et al., 1989). Another important concern is whether the patient is being treated concurrently with medication, since some of the older medications contain side effects like orthostatic hypertension and sedation that may conflict with the patient’s ability to perform aerobic exercises.
Although more research obviously needs to be done on exactly which aspect of exercise enhances mood and lowers depression, there is no doubt that a correlation exists between the two. In a study published in the British Journal of Sports Medicine, the therapeutic benefits of aerobic exercise were seen after 10 days, as opposed to the 2-6 weeks it takes for the average antidepressant drugs to have an effect (2001). Using exercise as a treatment for depression may be more beneficial due to its low cost (compared to prescribed medications and therapy sessions) and the numerous side effects it can produce, including increased self-esteem, a more pleasing physical appearance, a feeling of mastery and control, and many others. If 41% of depressed women are too embarrassed to seek help, then an exercise program may be the key to alleviating the depression while maintaining their privacy (NIMH, 1999).
References
Artal, M. (1998) Exercise Against Depression. The Physician and Sports Medicine, 26(10).
Bahrke, M.S., & Morgan, W.P. (1978) Anxiety reduction following exercise: mediation. Cognitive Therapy Research, 2(4), 323-33.
Blackburn, I. M., Bishop, S., Glen, A.I.M., Whalley, L.J., & Christie, J.E. (1981). The efficacy of cognitive therapy in depression: A treatment trial using cognitive therapy and pharmacotherapy, each alone and in combination. British Journal of Psychiatry, 139, 181-189.
Berger, B.G., & Motl, R.W. (2000) Exercise and mood: A selective review and synthesis of research employing the Profile of Mood States. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 12, 69-92.
Doyne, E.J., Ossip-Klein, F.J., Bowman, E.D., Osborn, K.M., McDougall-Wilson, I.B., & Neimeyer, R.A. (1987).
Running versus weight lifting in the treatment of depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55, 748-754.
Freemont, J., & Craighead, L.W. (1987) Aerobic exercise and cognitive therapy in the treatment of dysphoric moods. Cognitive Therapy Research, 11, 241-251.
Kirsch, A., & Sapirstein, G. (1998) Listening to Prozac but hearing placebo: A meta-analysis of antidepressant medication. Prevention & Treatment, 1.
Lewisohn, P.M. (1974) Clinical and theoretical aspects of depression. Innovative treatment methods in psychopathology. 63-120.
Mercola, J. (2002) Sugar pills work as well as antidepressants. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology, 5(3), 193-7.
Moore, M. (1982) Endorphins and exercise: a puzzling relationship. Physician Sports Medicine, 10(2), 111-114.
National Institute of Mental Health (1999) The numbers count: Mental illness in America. Science on Out Minds Fact Sheet Series. Accessed April 2004. Netscape: http://www.nimh.nih.gov/publicar/numbers.cfm
O’Connel, P.J., Morgan, W.P., Raglin, J.S., et al. (1989) Mood state and salivary cortisol levels following overtraining in female swimmers. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 14(4). 303-310.
Ransford, C.P. (1982) A role for amines in the antidepressant effect of exercise: a review. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 4(1), 1-10.
Spence JC, Poon P, Dyck P. (1997) The effect of physical-activity participation on self-concept: a meta-analysis. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology. 19-109.
Wankel LM. (1993) The importance of enjoyment to adherence and psychological benefits from physical activity. International Journal of Sports Psychology, 24(2), 151-169.
Cheating, Gender Roles, and the Nineteenth-Century Croquet Craze
This article provides a brief history on croquet and examines the widespread cheating in addition to the roles that gender played in this game in the 19th century. Generally, when considering croquet, a very refined and somewhat graceful image of the elite social class comes to mind; something considered more of a recreational activity than a sport. Historically, however, the game was much more competitive than its stereotypes allow one to imagine.
At the peak of its popularity, croquet was a sport dominated by women. The majority of the players were women, and they usually were more successful at the game than their male opponents. In fact, women were encouraged to participate in this activity because of the delicate skill needed to play, the flattering physical appearance it created and the flirtatious opportunities it provided. Women were also featured in most of the media surrounding croquet, including rule books and magazines.
At the same time, the disposition of the game was turning sour. Many games would end in chaos, similar to the well-known Queen of Hearts' croquet game in Lewis Carroll's Alice in Wonderland. Cheating occurred almost as regularly as the accusations of it, including claims that the players were playing out of turn, moving the ball on purpose, and making arguments as to whether the ball even moved. Many of the conflicts involved the women, and they developed quite a reputation for deceitful croquet playing. They would be accused of covering the ball with their full skirts while moving it underneath, among other no-nos.
As a woman, I may not be completely objective, but my first reaction to this article is that at a time when society was teaching and encouraging women to be passive and let the man dominate, women found a sport that they were more successful at than men. The article even describes that the sport was appealing to women because great strength was not necessary to compete, but delicate skill was, which most of these ladies possessed. It seems that the men, who were used to being the dominating force, especially in sport, felt threatened by this power that the women had on the croquet course and looked for any excuse to justify the women's wins. The article tells of a shot that was popular among the women, where they "castrated" the men by sending a man's ball flying. Apparently, the man could do nothing but watch, then further humiliate himself by, out of social courtesy, setting the balls in place for the shot. In a culture where the man is used to being the overpowering force, it must be difficult to be resigned to such a submissive position at the hands of a woman. It could very well follow that in order for a man who has just lost to a woman in any sport to redeem himself by proclaiming that the woman only won because she cheated.
Another point the article brings up is that if women were admitting to cheating at croquet, they may have only been doing it to raise their male counterpart's ego. On the same level as mentioned above, it's probably much more satisfying for a man to hear a woman claim that the only way she could win against him is to cheat. Perhaps this was a mutually acceptable excuse for the woman to beat the man at any sport, regardless of whether she actually did cheat.
I believe that we have come a long way since those times, in many respects. Women have proved themselves worthy in the world of sport. Although many professional sports do not have men competing against women, and many female sports are just now starting to get the recognition they deserve, women at least are able to compete freely at any sport. Impartial judges and extremely detailed rulebooks help reduce cheating and accusations thereof in today's world of sport. In terms of croquet, I am not familiar enough with the sport in today's world to know if matches still end in chaos on a regular basis or if people (women) are still finding ways to cheat at it.
Sterngass, J. (1998) Cheating, Gender Roles, and the Nineteenth-Century Croquet Craze Journal of Sport History, 25(3), 398-418.
At the peak of its popularity, croquet was a sport dominated by women. The majority of the players were women, and they usually were more successful at the game than their male opponents. In fact, women were encouraged to participate in this activity because of the delicate skill needed to play, the flattering physical appearance it created and the flirtatious opportunities it provided. Women were also featured in most of the media surrounding croquet, including rule books and magazines.
At the same time, the disposition of the game was turning sour. Many games would end in chaos, similar to the well-known Queen of Hearts' croquet game in Lewis Carroll's Alice in Wonderland. Cheating occurred almost as regularly as the accusations of it, including claims that the players were playing out of turn, moving the ball on purpose, and making arguments as to whether the ball even moved. Many of the conflicts involved the women, and they developed quite a reputation for deceitful croquet playing. They would be accused of covering the ball with their full skirts while moving it underneath, among other no-nos.
As a woman, I may not be completely objective, but my first reaction to this article is that at a time when society was teaching and encouraging women to be passive and let the man dominate, women found a sport that they were more successful at than men. The article even describes that the sport was appealing to women because great strength was not necessary to compete, but delicate skill was, which most of these ladies possessed. It seems that the men, who were used to being the dominating force, especially in sport, felt threatened by this power that the women had on the croquet course and looked for any excuse to justify the women's wins. The article tells of a shot that was popular among the women, where they "castrated" the men by sending a man's ball flying. Apparently, the man could do nothing but watch, then further humiliate himself by, out of social courtesy, setting the balls in place for the shot. In a culture where the man is used to being the overpowering force, it must be difficult to be resigned to such a submissive position at the hands of a woman. It could very well follow that in order for a man who has just lost to a woman in any sport to redeem himself by proclaiming that the woman only won because she cheated.
Another point the article brings up is that if women were admitting to cheating at croquet, they may have only been doing it to raise their male counterpart's ego. On the same level as mentioned above, it's probably much more satisfying for a man to hear a woman claim that the only way she could win against him is to cheat. Perhaps this was a mutually acceptable excuse for the woman to beat the man at any sport, regardless of whether she actually did cheat.
I believe that we have come a long way since those times, in many respects. Women have proved themselves worthy in the world of sport. Although many professional sports do not have men competing against women, and many female sports are just now starting to get the recognition they deserve, women at least are able to compete freely at any sport. Impartial judges and extremely detailed rulebooks help reduce cheating and accusations thereof in today's world of sport. In terms of croquet, I am not familiar enough with the sport in today's world to know if matches still end in chaos on a regular basis or if people (women) are still finding ways to cheat at it.
Sterngass, J. (1998) Cheating, Gender Roles, and the Nineteenth-Century Croquet Craze Journal of Sport History, 25(3), 398-418.
Using Sports Fiction in Physical Education
Summary
Researchers are suggesting that physical education teachers incorporate the reading of sport-based fiction and non-fiction books into their curriculum. The article refers to studies that have shown that using books other than textbooks that are relevant to physical education helps students make connections between their own lives and what they are learning in P.E. class, while encouraging literacy. One novel suggested in this article is In the Year of the Boar and Jackie Robinson (Lord, 1986), for its attempt at describing why baseball is America's favorite pastime, as wel as its importance to Japenese Americans during World War II. Sports fiction like In the Year utlilzes characters and situations that most youths can relate to in order address issues that are relevant in their lives, such as relationships with friends and family, sportsmanship, social pressures, and violence. Educators are urged to host book talks, where several books are described to the students to allow the to decide which ones interest them the most. In addition to reading these books, teachers should encourage students to reflect on the book and focus on a particular aspect, such as whether the sport is portrayed accurately in the story or what lesson the novel is trying to teach. By doing so, the student is more likely to engage in a discussion based on past experience and current beliefs with much opportunity for deep thought and critical thinking. The article also contains a sidebar comprised of 18 suggested readings about 8 different sports, and a brief description of each book.
Reflection
This article touches upon some excellent points. No matter what the subject matter, anything that encourages literacy, especially among children and young adults, is beneficial. Incorporating fiction and non-fiction into physical education class is a wonderful way to emphasize the multi-faceted image of sports, making it more appealing to a wider audience. It can also help encourage non-athletic youths to become more comfortable with the world of sport. Since most of these novels feature characters that the students can easily relate to, it is very likely that non-athletic students could decide to try a new sport just because it sounded appealing in a book. The storyline of the novel can help maintain their interest so they learn about a sport without feeling lost if they don't know all the details about how the game works. In contrast, students who are not interested in history or other subjects, but favor sports, may appreciate those subjects more after learning about them in relation to sports. Learning the historical and social aspects of a sports can also increase interest; yet the impact sports have had on society is not something that is taught in traditional physical education classes. Knowledge of this creates a whole new respect for sport, and could even help the athlete understand the game better and appreciate and enjoy it more. The discussion of the book is just as important as reading it, since it encourages the student to think about situations that could potentially arise in his or her own life and how they could deal with it in a positive manner. Participating in a discussion can promote growth, teamwork and cooperation by allowing the students to learn from each other and hear each other's thoughts and experiences.
The suggestion of including fiction and non-fiction reading materials in physical education classes is brilliant; however, this particular article doesn't mention whether the novels should be read in accordance with what is currently being taught in the physical aspect of class. The appreciation of both the sport and the book would most likely be most effective if the students were reading Hoops by Walter Dean (a story about a young African American boy who uses basketball as his ticket out of Harlem) while playing basketball during the class period. Using novels in physical education class to increase literacy and promote the interest in sport and its place in history will be an effective way to enlighten and educate all students in many aspects, and should certainly be considered by those in the education field.
Researchers are suggesting that physical education teachers incorporate the reading of sport-based fiction and non-fiction books into their curriculum. The article refers to studies that have shown that using books other than textbooks that are relevant to physical education helps students make connections between their own lives and what they are learning in P.E. class, while encouraging literacy. One novel suggested in this article is In the Year of the Boar and Jackie Robinson (Lord, 1986), for its attempt at describing why baseball is America's favorite pastime, as wel as its importance to Japenese Americans during World War II. Sports fiction like In the Year utlilzes characters and situations that most youths can relate to in order address issues that are relevant in their lives, such as relationships with friends and family, sportsmanship, social pressures, and violence. Educators are urged to host book talks, where several books are described to the students to allow the to decide which ones interest them the most. In addition to reading these books, teachers should encourage students to reflect on the book and focus on a particular aspect, such as whether the sport is portrayed accurately in the story or what lesson the novel is trying to teach. By doing so, the student is more likely to engage in a discussion based on past experience and current beliefs with much opportunity for deep thought and critical thinking. The article also contains a sidebar comprised of 18 suggested readings about 8 different sports, and a brief description of each book.
Reflection
This article touches upon some excellent points. No matter what the subject matter, anything that encourages literacy, especially among children and young adults, is beneficial. Incorporating fiction and non-fiction into physical education class is a wonderful way to emphasize the multi-faceted image of sports, making it more appealing to a wider audience. It can also help encourage non-athletic youths to become more comfortable with the world of sport. Since most of these novels feature characters that the students can easily relate to, it is very likely that non-athletic students could decide to try a new sport just because it sounded appealing in a book. The storyline of the novel can help maintain their interest so they learn about a sport without feeling lost if they don't know all the details about how the game works. In contrast, students who are not interested in history or other subjects, but favor sports, may appreciate those subjects more after learning about them in relation to sports. Learning the historical and social aspects of a sports can also increase interest; yet the impact sports have had on society is not something that is taught in traditional physical education classes. Knowledge of this creates a whole new respect for sport, and could even help the athlete understand the game better and appreciate and enjoy it more. The discussion of the book is just as important as reading it, since it encourages the student to think about situations that could potentially arise in his or her own life and how they could deal with it in a positive manner. Participating in a discussion can promote growth, teamwork and cooperation by allowing the students to learn from each other and hear each other's thoughts and experiences.
The suggestion of including fiction and non-fiction reading materials in physical education classes is brilliant; however, this particular article doesn't mention whether the novels should be read in accordance with what is currently being taught in the physical aspect of class. The appreciation of both the sport and the book would most likely be most effective if the students were reading Hoops by Walter Dean (a story about a young African American boy who uses basketball as his ticket out of Harlem) while playing basketball during the class period. Using novels in physical education class to increase literacy and promote the interest in sport and its place in history will be an effective way to enlighten and educate all students in many aspects, and should certainly be considered by those in the education field.
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